See also: The uses ψυχή ( psyche) to translate נפש ( ), meaning 'life, vital breath', and specifically refers to a mortal, physical life, but in English it is variously translated as 'soul, self, life, creature, person, appetite,, living being, desire, emotion, passion'; [ ] an example can be found in: Hebrew – וַיִּבְרָא אֱלֹהִים, אֶת-הַתַּנִּינִם הַגְּדֹלִים; וְאֵת כָּל-נֶפֶשׁ הַחַיָּה הָרֹמֶשֶׂת [ ] Septuagint – καὶ ἐποίησεν ὁ θεὸς τὰ κήτη τὰ μεγάλα καὶ πᾶσαν ψυχὴν ζῴων ἑρπετῶν. – Creavitque Deus cete grandia, et omnem animam viventem atque motabilem. – 'And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth.' The Koine Greek word ( ), 'life, spirit, consciousness', is derived from a verb meaning 'to cool, to blow', and hence refers to the breath, as opposed to ( soma), meaning 'body'.

[ ] Psychē occurs juxtaposed to σῶμα, as seen in: Greek – καὶ μὴ φοβεῖσθε ἀπὸ τῶν ἀποκτεννόντων τὸ σῶμα, τὴν δὲ ψυχὴν μὴ δυναμένων ἀποκτεῖναι φοβεῖσθε δὲ μᾶλλον τὸν δυνάμενον καὶ ψυχὴν καὶ σῶμα ἀπολέσαι ἐν γεέννῃ. Vulgate – et nolite timere eos qui occidunt corpus animam autem non possunt occidere sed potius eum timete qui potest et animam et corpus perdere in gehennam.

Interpretation of Scripture: Recovering a Christian Practice. (Baker, 2008). Uche Anizor is Assistant. Professor of Biblical and. Theological Studies at Talbot. School of Theology, Biola. University, and a doctoral candidate at Wheaton College. Despite the hubbub in academic circles about theological interpretation of Scripture.

Authorized King James Version (KJV) – 'And fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul: but rather fear him which is able to destroy both soul and body in hell.' Used ψυχή ( psychē) and ( pneuma) specifically to distinguish between the Jewish notions of נפש ( nephesh) and רוח (spirit) [ ] (also in the Septuagint, e.g. רוּחַ אֱלֹהִים = πνεῦμα θεοῦ = spiritus Dei = 'the Spirit of God').

Religious views [ ] Ancient Near East [ ]. Soul carried to Heaven by Most Christians understand the soul as an reality distinct from, yet integrally connected with, the body. Its characteristics are described in moral, spiritual, and philosophical terms., a Christian at Oxford University, wrote that 'it is a frequent criticism of substance dualism that cannot say what souls are. Souls are immaterial subjects of mental properties. They have sensations and thoughts, desires and beliefs, and perform intentional actions. Souls are essential parts of human beings'.

According to a common, when people die, their souls will be and determined to go to or to. Though all branches of Christianity – Catholics,,,,, and – teach that Jesus Christ plays a decisive role in the process, the specifics of that role and the part played by individual persons or rituals and relationships, is a matter of wide diversity in official church teaching, theological speculation and popular practice. Some Christians believe that if one has not repented of one's sins and has not trusted in Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior, he/she will go to and suffer eternal or eternal separation from God. Some hold a belief that babies (including the unborn) and those with cognitive or mental impairments who have died will be received into on the basis of God's grace through the sacrifice of Jesus.

Other Christians understand the soul as the life, and believe that the dead are sleeping (). This belief is traditionally accompanied by the belief that the unrighteous soul will cease to exist instead of suffering eternally ().

Believers will inherit either in, or in a on earth, and enjoy eternal fellowship with God. There are also beliefs in. The Damned Soul.

Drawing by c. 1525 Trichotomy of the soul [ ], one of western Christianity's most influential early Christian thinkers, described the soul as 'a special substance, endowed with reason, adapted to rule the body'. Some Christians espouse a view of humans, which characterizes humans as consisting of a body ( soma), soul ( psyche), and spirit ( pneuma). However, the majority of modern Bible scholars point out how spirit and soul are used interchangeably in many biblical passages, and so hold to dichotomy: the view that each of us is body and soul.

Paul said that the 'body wars against' the soul, 'For the word of God is living and active and sharper than any two-edged sword, and piercing as far as the division of soul and spirit' (Heb 4:12 NASB), and that 'I buffet my body', to keep it under control. Trichotomy was changed to dichotomy as tenet of Christian faith at the Council of Constantinople in 869 regarded as the 8th Ecumenical Council by Roman Catholics. Origin of the soul [ ] The 'origin of the soul' has provided a vexing question in Christianity. The major theories put forward include,, and.

According to creationism, each individual soul is created directly by God, either at the moment of conception or some later time. According to traducianism, the soul comes from the parents by natural generation. According to the preexistence theory, the soul exists before the moment of conception. There have been differing thoughts regarding whether human have souls from conception, or there is a point between conception and birth where the,, and/or. Stances in this question might more or less influence judgements on the.

Various denominations [ ] The present defines the soul as 'the innermost aspect of humans, that which is of greatest value in them, that by which they are in God's image described as 'soul' signifies the spiritual principle in man'. All souls living and dead will be judged by Jesus Christ when he comes back to earth. The Catholic Church teaches that the existence of each individual soul is dependent wholly upon God: 'The doctrine of the faith affirms that the spiritual and immortal soul is created immediately by God.' Depiction of the soul on a 17th-century tombstone at the cemetery of the Protestants generally believe in the soul's existence, but fall into two major camps about what this means in terms of an. Some, following, believe in the and conscious existence after death, while others, following, believe in the and unconscious 'sleep' until the.

Various derived from Adventism—including, [ ] and —similarly believe that the dead do not possess a soul separate from the body and are unconscious until the resurrection. Teaches that the spirit and body together constitute the Soul of Man (Mankind). 'The spirit and the body are the soul of man.'

Latter-day Saints believe that the soul is the union of a pre-existing, God-made spirit and a temporal body, which is formed by physical conception on earth. After death, the spirit continues to live and progress in the until the, when it is reunited with the body that once housed it.

This reuniting of body and spirit results in a perfect soul that is immortal and eternal and capable of receiving a fulness of joy. Latter-day Saint cosmology also describes 'intelligences' as the essence of consciousness or agency.

These are co-eternal with God, and animate the spirits. The union of a newly created spirit body with an eternally-existing intelligence constitutes a 'spirit birth' [ ] and justifies God's title 'Father of our spirits'. Mortality or immortality [ ].

Hindu last rites for departed souls Ātman is a word that means inner or soul. In, especially in the school of, Ātman is the, the true self of an individual beyond identification with phenomena, the essence of an individual. In order to attain, a human being must acquire self-knowledge (atma ), which is to realize that one's true self (Ātman) is identical with the transcendent self. The believe that there is Ātman (soul, self) in every being, a major point of difference with, which does not believe that there is either soul or self. In and, a jiva (: जीव, jīva, alternative spelling jiwa;: जीव, jīv, alternative spelling jeev) is a living being, or any entity imbued with a life force. In Jainism, jiva is the immortal essence or soul of a living organism (human, animal, fish or plant etc.) which survives physical death.

The concept of Ajiva in Jainism means 'not soul', and represents matter (including body), time, space, non-motion and motion. In Jainism, a Jiva is either samsari (mundane, caught in cycle of rebirths) or mukta (liberated). The concept of jiva in Jainism is similar to in Hinduism.

However, some Hindu traditions differentiate between the two concepts, with jiva considered as individual self, while atman as that which is universal unchanging self that is present in all living beings and everything else as the metaphysical. The latter is sometimes referred to as jiva-atman (a soul in a living body). According to, the soul is an eternal point of light, resides between forehead. Further information: and In Jainism, every living being, from plant or bacterium to human, has a soul and the concept forms the very basis of Jainism.

According to Jainism, there is no beginning or end to the existence of soul. It is eternal in nature and changes its form until it attains liberation. The soul () is basically categorized in two based on its present state.

• Liberated Souls – These are souls which have attained liberation ( ) and never become part of the life cycle again. • Non-Liberated Souls – The souls of any living being which are stuck in the life cycle of 4 forms; Manushya Gati (Human Being), Tiryanch Gati (Any other living being), Dev Gati (Heaven) and Narak Gati (Hell). Until the time the soul is liberated from the (cycle of repeated birth and death), it gets attached to one of these bodies based on the (actions) of the individual soul.

Irrespective of which state the soul is in, it has got the same attributes and qualities. The difference between the liberated and non-liberated souls is that the qualities and attributes are manifested completely in case of (liberated soul) as they have overcome all the karmic bondages whereas in case of non-liberated souls they are partially exhibited. Concerning the Jain view of the soul, said the soul lives its own life, not for the purpose of the body, but the body lives for the purpose of the soul. If we believe that the soul is to be controlled by the body then soul misses its power.

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(October 2017) () The terms נפש (literally 'living being'), רוח (literally 'wind'), נשמה neshama (literally 'breath'), חיה chaya (literally 'life') and יחידה yechidah (literally 'singularity') are used to describe the soul or spirit. [ ] In the soul was believed to be given by God to Adam as mentioned in, Then the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul. — Judaism relates the quality of one's soul to one's performance of the commandments,, and reaching higher levels of understanding, and thus closeness to God. A person with such closeness is called a. Therefore, Judaism embraces the commemoration of the day of one's death, / Yahrtzeit and not the as a festivity of remembrance, for only toward the end of life's struggles, tests and challenges could human souls be judged and credited - ('with God's help') - for righteousness and holiness.

Judaism places great importance on the study of the souls. For I will not contend for ever, neither will I be always wroth; for the spirit that enwrappeth itself is from Me, and the souls which I have made. (Greek) who guides dead souls to the Underworld. 4th century BC. In theological reference to the soul, the terms 'life' and 'death' are viewed as emphatically more definitive than the common concepts of ' and 'biological death'. Because the soul is said to be transcendent of the existence, and is said to have (potentially), the death of the soul is likewise said to be an eternal death.

Thus, in the concept of, God is commonly said to have options with regard to the dispensation of souls, ranging from (i.e., ) to (i.e., ), with various concepts in between. Typically both Heaven and hell are said to be eternal, or at least far beyond a typical human concept of and time. According to, soul of is the image of. Spirituality, New Age, and new religions [ ] Brahma Kumaris [ ] In, human souls are believed to be incorporeal and.

God is considered to be the Supreme Soul, with maximum degrees of spiritual qualities, such as peace, love and purity. Theosophy [ ] In 's, the soul is the field of our psychological activity (thinking, emotions, memory, desires, will, and so on) as well as of the so-called paranormal or phenomena (extrasensory perception, out-of-body experiences, etc.). However, the soul is not the highest, but a middle dimension of human beings.

Higher than the soul is the spirit, which is considered to be the real self; the source of everything we call 'good'—happiness, wisdom, love, compassion, harmony, peace, etc. While the spirit is eternal and incorruptible, the soul is not. The soul acts as a link between the material body and the spiritual self, and therefore shares some characteristics of both. The soul can be attracted either towards the spiritual or towards the material realm, being thus the 'battlefield' of good and evil.

It is only when the soul is attracted towards the spiritual and merges with the Self that it becomes eternal and divine. Anthroposophy [ ] differentiated three stages of soul development, which interpenetrate one another in consciousness: • The 'sentient soul', centering on sensations, drives, and passions, with strong (will) and emotional components; • The 'intellectual' or 'mind soul', internalizing and reflecting on outer experience, with strong affective (feeling) and cognitive (thinking) components; and • The 'consciousness soul', in search of universal, objective truths. Miscellaneous [ ] In, the soul is considered to be an exact replica and spark of the Divine. The purpose of Surat Shabd Yoga is to realize one's True Self as soul (Self-Realisation), True Essence (Spirit-Realisation) and True Divinity (God-Realisation) while living in the physical body.

Similarly, the spiritual teacher held that 'Atma, or the soul, is in reality identical with Paramatma the Oversoul — which is one, infinite, and eternal.[and] [t]he sole purpose of creation is for the soul to enjoy the infinite state of the Oversoul consciously.' , founded by in 1965, defines Soul as the true self; the inner, most sacred part of each person. Philosophical views [ ] The used the word 'alive' for the concept of being ', indicating that the earliest surviving view believed that the soul was that which gave the body life. [ ] The soul was considered the incorporeal or spiritual 'breath' that animates (from the Latin,, cf. 'animal') the living organism. Quotes by saying that the soul sleeps while the limbs are active, but when one is sleeping, the soul is active and reveals 'an award of joy or sorrow drawing near' in dreams.

Writes that an early pre- belief presented the soul as lifeless when it departed the body, and that it retired into with no hope of returning to a body. Socrates and Plato [ ]. Main article: Drawing on the words of his teacher Socrates, Plato considered the psyche to be the of a person, being that which decides how we behave. He considered this essence to be an incorporeal, eternal occupant of our being.

Socrates says that even after death, the soul exists and is able to think. He believed that as bodies die, the soul is continually reborn in subsequent bodies and Plato believed this as well, however, he thought that only one part of the soul was immortal ( ).

The Platonic soul consists of three parts: • the logos, or logistikon (mind,, or ) • the, or thumetikon (, spiritedness, or masculine) • the, or epithumetikon (appetitive,, or feminine) The parts are located in different regions of the body: • logos is located in the head, is related to reason and regulates the other part. • thymos is located near the chest region and is related to anger. • eros is located in the stomach and is related to one's desires. Plato also compares the three parts of the soul or psyche to a societal.

According to Plato's theory, the three-part soul is essentially the same thing as a state's class system because, to function well, each part must contribute so that the whole functions well. Logos keeps the other functions of the soul regulated. Aristotle [ ]. This section needs additional citations for. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) () Following Aristotle, (Ibn Sina) and, a, further elaborated upon the Aristotelian understanding of the soul and developed their own theories on the soul.

They both made a distinction between the soul and the spirit, and the doctrine on the nature of the soul was influential among the. Some of Avicenna's views on the soul include the idea that the immortality of the soul is a consequence of its nature, and not a purpose for it to fulfill.

In his theory of 'The Ten Intellects', he viewed the human soul as the tenth and final. While he was imprisoned, Avicenna wrote his famous 'Floating Man' to demonstrate human and the substantial nature of the soul. He told his readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air, isolated from all sensations, which includes no contact with even their own bodies. He argues that in this scenario one would still have.

He thus concludes that the idea of the is not logically dependent on any physical, and that the soul should not be seen in, but as a primary given, a. This argument was later refined and simplified by in terms, when he stated: 'I can abstract from the supposition of all external things, but not from the supposition of my own consciousness.' Avicenna generally supported Aristotle's idea of the soul originating from the, whereas Ibn al-Nafis rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul 'is related to the entirety and not to one or a few '. He further criticized Aristotle's idea whereby every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Al-Nafis concluded that 'the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul,' and he defined the soul as nothing other than 'what a human indicates by saying '.

Thomas Aquinas [ ] Following Aristotle and Avicenna, (1225–74) understood the soul to be the first actuality of the living body. Consequent to this, he distinguished three orders of life: plants, which feed and grow; animals, which add sensation to the operations of plants; and humans, which add intellect to the operations of animals. Concerning the human soul, his epistemological theory required that, since the knower becomes what he knows, the soul is definitely not corporeal—if it is corporeal when it knows what some corporeal thing is, that thing would come to be within it. Therefore, the soul has an operation which does not rely on a body organ, and therefore the soul can exist without a body. Furthermore, since the rational soul of human beings is a subsistent form and not something made of matter and form, it cannot be destroyed in any natural process. The full argument for the and Aquinas' elaboration of Aristotelian theory is found in Question 75 of the First Part of the. Immanuel Kant [ ] In his discussions of rational psychology, (1724–1804) identified the soul as the 'I' in the strictest sense, and argued that the existence of inner experience can neither be proved nor disproved.

We cannot prove a priori the immateriality of the soul, but rather only so much: that all properties and actions of the soul cannot be recognized from materiality. It is from the 'I', or soul, that Kant proposes transcendental rationalization, but cautions that such rationalization can only determine the limits of knowledge if it is to remain practical.

Philosophy of mind [ ]. Main article: 's argument, which is a rejection of Descartes', can provide a contemporary understanding of the soul/mind, and the problem concerning its connection to the brain/body.

James Hillman [ ] Psychologist James Hillman's is an attempt to restore the concept of the soul, which Hillman viewed as the 'self-sustaining and imagining substrate' upon which consciousness rests. Hillman described the soul as that 'which makes meaning possible, [deepens] events into experiences, is communicated in love, and has a religious concern', as well as 'a special relation with death'. Departing from the Cartesian 'between outer tangible reality and inner states of mind', Hillman takes the stance that there is a 'third, middle position' in which soul resides. Archetypal psychology acknowledges this third position by attuning to, and often accepting, the,,, and even through which, in Hillman's view, soul expresses itself. Science [ ] Neuroscience [ ] as an field, and its branch of particularly, operates under the assumption of. In other words, it assumes—in order to perform its science—that only the fundamental phenomena studied by exist. Thus, neuroscience seeks to understand mental phenomena within the framework according to which human and are caused solely by physical processes taking place inside the brain, and it operates by the way of by seeking an explanation for the mind in terms of brain activity.

To study the mind in terms of the brain several methods of are used to study the neuroanatomical correlates of various that constitute the mind. The evidence from brain imaging indicates that all processes of the mind have physical correlates in brain function.

However, such correlational studies cannot determine whether neural activity plays a causal role in the occurrence of these cognitive processes () and they cannot determine if the neural activity is either for such processes to occur. Identification of, and of necessary and sufficient conditions requires explicit experimental manipulation of that activity. If manipulation of brain activity changes consciousness, then a causal role for that brain activity can be inferred. Two of the most common types of manipulation experiments are loss-of-function and gain-of-function experiments.

In a loss-of-function (also called 'necessity') experiment, a part of the nervous system is diminished or removed in an attempt to determine if it is necessary for a certain process to occur, and in a gain-of-function (also called 'sufficiency') experiment, an aspect of the nervous system is increased relative to normal. Manipulations of brain activity can be performed with direct, magnetic brain stimulation using, manipulation, manipulation, and by studying the symptoms of (case studies) and. In addition, neuroscientists are also investigating how the mind develops with the development of the brain. Physics [ ] Physicist has written that the idea of a soul is in opposition to (QFT). He writes that for a soul to exist: 'Not only is new physics required, but dramatically new physics. Within QFT, there can't be a new collection of 'spirit particles' and 'spirit forces' that interact with our regular atoms, because we would have detected them in existing experiments.' Has been invoked by some theorists as a solution to the problem of how a soul might interact with the brain but neuroscientist Peter Clarke found errors with this viewpoint, noting there is no evidence that such processes play a role in brain function; and concluded that a soul has no basis from quantum physics.

Biology [ ] Biologist () has written that 'the soul is a word to designate an idea we invented to represent the sensation of being inhabited by an existence, by a conscience'. Barrette explains, using simple examples in a short self-published article, that the soul is a property from the complex organisation of matter in the brain. Parapsychology [ ] Some have attempted to establish, by experiment, whether a soul separate from the brain exists, as is more commonly defined in religion rather than as a synonym of psyche or mind. (1979) and (2010) have argued that none of the attempts by parapsychologists have yet succeeded. Weight of the soul [ ] In 1901 conducted in which he made weight measurements of patients as they died. He claimed that there was weight loss of varying amounts at the time of death, he concluded the soul weighed 21 grams.

The physicist has written that MacDougall's experiments 'are not regarded today as having any scientific merit' and the psychologist wrote that 'because the weight loss was not reliable or replicable, his findings were unscientific.' See also [ ] • • • • • (essay) • (or Oversoul) • • • References [ ].

Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Definitions According to sociologist Allan G. Johnson, 'misogyny is a cultural attitude of hatred for females because they are female'. Johnson argues that: Misogyny. Is a central part of sexist prejudice and ideology and, as such, is an important basis for the of females in male-dominated societies. Misogyny is manifested in many different ways, from jokes to pornography to violence to the self-contempt women may be taught to feel toward their own bodies. Sociologist at the defines misogyny as the hatred of women, and notes: Though most common in men, misogyny also exists in and is practiced by women against other women or even themselves. Misogyny functions as an ideology or belief system that has accompanied patriarchal, or male-dominated societies for thousands of years and continues to place women in subordinate positions with limited access to power and decision making.

[] Aristotle contended that women exist as natural deformities or imperfect males [] Ever since, women in have internalised their role as societal scapegoats, influenced in the twenty-first century by multimedia objectification of women with its culturally sanctioned self-loathing and fixations on plastic surgery, anorexia and bulimia. Dictionaries define misogyny as 'hatred of women' and as 'hatred, dislike, or mistrust of women'. In 2012, primarily in response to events occurring in the, the (which documents and ) expanded the definition to include not only hatred of women but also 'entrenched prejudices against women'. The counterpart of misogyny is, the hatred or dislike of men; the of misogyny is, the love or fondness of women. Historical usage Classical Greece.

In his book City of Sokrates: An Introduction to Classical Athens, J.W. Roberts argues that older than tragedy and comedy was a misogynistic tradition in Greek literature, reaching back at least as far as. The term misogyny itself comes directly into English from the Ancient Greek word misogunia ( μισογυνία), which survives in several passages. The earlier, longer, and more complete passage comes from a moral tract known as On Marriage ( c. 150 BC) by the philosopher. Antipater argues that marriage is the foundation of the state, and considers it to be based on divine () decree. He uses misogunia to describe the sort of writing the tragedian eschews, stating that he 'reject[s] the hatred of women in his writing' (ἀποθέμενος τὴν ἐν τῷ γράφειν μισογυνίαν).

He then offers an example of this, quoting from a lost play of Euripides in which the merits of a dutiful wife are praised. The other surviving use of the original Greek word is by, in a fragment from On affections, quoted by in on Affections.

Here, misogyny is the first in a short list of three 'disaffections'—women ( misogunian), wine ( misoinian, μισοινίαν) and humanity ( misanthrōpian, μισανθρωπίαν). Chrysippus' point is more abstract than Antipater's, and Galen quotes the passage as an example of an opinion contrary to his own. What is clear, however, is that he groups hatred of women with hatred of humanity generally, and even hatred of wine. 'It was the prevailing medical opinion of his day that wine strengthens body and soul alike.' So Chrysippus, like his fellow stoic Antipater, views misogyny negatively, as a; a dislike of something that is good. It is this issue of conflicted or alternating emotions that was philosophically contentious to the ancient writers.

Ricardo Salles suggests that the general stoic view was that '[a] man may not only alternate between philogyny and misogyny, philanthropy and misanthropy, but be prompted to each by the other.' Has also been accused of being a misogynist; he has written that women were inferior to men. Cicero reports that Greek philosophers considered misogyny to be caused by, a fear of women. It is the same with other diseases; as the desire of glory, a passion for women, to which the Greeks give the name of philogyneia: and thus all other diseases and sicknesses are generated.

But those feelings which are the contrary of these are supposed to have fear for their foundation, as a hatred of women, such as is displayed in the Woman-hater of Atilius; or the hatred of the whole human species, as Timon is reported to have done, whom they call the Misanthrope. Prospettiva Di Un Delitto Torrent Ita La. Of the same kind is inhospitality.

And all these diseases proceed from a certain dread of such things as they hate and avoid. See also: and Ancient Greek In Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice, argues that there is evidence of misogyny in the of the ancient world. In according to Hesiod, the human race had already experienced a peaceful, autonomous existence as a companion to the gods before the creation of women. When decides to steal the secret of fire from the gods, becomes infuriated and decides to punish humankind with an 'evil thing for their delight'. This 'evil thing' is, the first woman, who carried a jar (usually described—incorrectly—as a box) which she was told to never open. (the brother of Prometheus) is overwhelmed by her beauty, disregards Prometheus' warnings about her, and marries her. Pandora cannot resist peeking into the jar, and by opening it she unleashes into the world all evil;,,, and.

Main article: In his book The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender, professor Bernard Faure of argued generally that 'Buddhism is paradoxically neither as sexist nor as egalitarian as is usually thought.' He remarked, 'Many feminist scholars have emphasized the misogynistic (or at least androcentric) nature of Buddhism' and stated that Buddhism morally exalts its male monks while the mothers and wives of the monks also have important roles. Additionally, he wrote: While some scholars see Buddhism as part of a movement of emancipation, others see it as a source of oppression. Perhaps this is only a distinction between optimists and pessimists, if not between idealists and realists. As we begin to realize, the term 'Buddhism' does not designate a monolithic entity, but covers a number of doctrines, ideologies, and practices--some of which seem to invite, tolerate, and even cultivate 'otherness' on their margins. See also: and Differences in tradition and interpretations of scripture have caused sects of Christianity to differ in their beliefs with regard their treatment of women. In The Troublesome Helpmate, Katharine M.

Rogers argues that Christianity is misogynistic, and she lists what she says are specific examples of misogyny in the. She states: The foundations of early Christian misogyny — its guilt about sex, its insistence on female subjection, its dread of female seduction — are all in St. Paul's epistles. Ruthven's Feminist Literary Studies: An Introduction, Ruthven makes reference to Rogers' book and argues that the 'legacy of Christian misogyny was consolidated by the so-called 'Fathers' of the Church, like, who thought a woman was not only 'the gateway of the devil' but also 'a temple built over a sewer'.' However, some other scholars have argued that Christianity does not include misogynistic principles, or at least that a proper interpretation of Christianity would not include misogynistic principles. Scholer, a biblical scholar at, stated that the verse Galatians 3:28 ('There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus') is 'the fundamental Pauline theological basis for the inclusion of women and men as equal and mutual partners in all of the ministries of the church.'

In his book Equality in Christ? Galatians 3:28 and the Gender Dispute, Richard Hove argues that—while Galatians 3:28 does mean that one's sex does not affect salvation—'there remains a pattern in which the wife is to emulate the church's submission to Christ () and the husband is to emulate Christ's love for the church.' In Christian Men Who Hate Women, clinical psychologist Margaret J.

Rinck has written that Christian social culture often allows a misogynist 'misuse of the biblical ideal of submission'. However, she argues that this a distortion of the 'healthy relationship of mutual submission' which is actually specified in Christian doctrine, where '[l]ove is based on a deep, mutual respect as the guiding principle behind all decisions, actions, and plans'. Similarly, Catholic scholar argues that 'male domination violates God's plan and is the specific result of sin'. See also: and The fourth chapter (or ) of the is called 'Women' (). The is a key verse in feminist criticism of. The verse reads: 'Men are the maintainers of women because Allah has made some of them to excel others and because they spend out of their property; the good women are therefore obedient, guarding the unseen as Allah has guarded; and (as to) those on whose part you fear desertion, admonish them, and leave them alone in the sleeping-places and beat them; then if they obey you, do not seek a way against them; surely Allah is High, Great.'

In his book Popular Islam and Misogyny: A Case Study of Bangladesh, Taj Hashmi discusses misogyny in relation to Muslim culture (and to in particular), writing: [T]hanks to the subjective interpretations of the Quran (almost exclusively by men), the preponderance of the misogynic mullahs and the regressive Shariah law in most 'Muslim' countries, Islam is synonymously known as a promoter of misogyny in its worst form. Although there is no way of defending the so-called 'great' traditions of Islam as libertarian and egalitarian with regard to women, we may draw a line between the Quranic texts and the corpus of avowedly misogynic writing and spoken words by the mullah having very little or no relevance to the Quran. In his book, professor wrote that 'misogynistic interpretation' has been persistently attached to An-Nisa, 34 because commentary on the Quran 'has been the exclusive domain of Muslim men'. Main article: In, stated that stricter controls on women was a condition of 'every elevation of culture'. In his, he has a female character say 'You are going to women?

Do not forget the whip!' In, Nietzsche writes 'Women are considered profound. Because we never fathom their depths. But women aren't even shallow.' There is controversy over the questions of whether or not this amounts to misogyny, whether his polemic against women is meant to be taken literally, and the exact nature of his opinions of women. Hegel view of women has been said to be misogynistic. Passages from Hegel's are frequently used to illustrate Hegel's supposed misogyny: Women are capable of education, but they are not made for activities which demand a universal faculty such as the more advanced sciences, philosophy and certain forms of artistic production.

Women regulate their actions not by the demands of universality, but by arbitrary inclinations and opinions. Internet misogyny Misogynistic rhetoric is prevalent online and has grown rhetorically more aggressive. The public debate over gender-based attacks has increased significantly, leading to calls for policy interventions and better responses by social networks like and. A 2016 study conducted by the concluded that 50% of all misogynistic tweets on come from women themselves. Most targets are women who are visible in the public sphere, women who speak out about the threats they receive, and women who are perceived to be associated with or feminist gains. Authors of misogynistic messages are usually anonymous or otherwise difficult to identify.

Their rhetoric involves misogynistic epithets and graphic and sexualized imagery, centers on the women's physical appearance, and prescribes sexual violence as a corrective for the targeted women. Examples of famous women who spoke out about misogynistic attacks are,,,, and. The insults and threats directed at different women tend to be very similar. Who has been the target of online threats noted the 'overwhelmingly impersonal, repetitive, stereotyped quality' of the abuse, the fact that 'all of us are being called the same things, in the same tone'.

Evolutionary theory A 2015 study published in the journal by researchers Michael M. Kasomovic and Jefferey S. Kuznekoff found that male status mediates sexist behavior towards women. The study found that women tend to experience hostile and sexist behavior in a male dominated field by lower status men. According to the theory proposed by the authors, since male dominated groups tend to be organized in hierarchies, the entry of women re-arranges the hierarchy in their favor by attracting the attention of higher status men. This, the theory goes, enables women automatic higher status over lower rank men, which is responded to by lower status men using sexist hostility in order to control for status loss. This study was one of the first notable pieces of evidence of inter-gender competition and has possible evolutionary implications for the origin of.

Internalized misogyny. Main article: Internalized sexism is when an individual enacts sexist actions and attitudes towards themselves and people of their own sex. On a larger scale, internalized sexism falls under the broad topic of, which 'consists of oppressive practices that continue to make the rounds even when members of the oppressor group are not present'.

Women who experience internalized misogyny may express it through minimizing the value of women, mistrusting women, and believing gender bias in favor of men. Women, after hearing men demean the value and skills of women repeatedly, eventually internalize their beliefs and apply the misogynistic beliefs to themselves and other women.

Feminist theory Part of on • • •. • • • Subscribers to one model say that some misogyny results from the, which is the inability to see women as anything other than 'mothers' or 'whores'; people with this complex place each encountered woman into one of these categories. Another variant model alleges that one cause of misogyny is some men thinking in terms of a virgin/whore dichotomy, which results in them considering as 'whores' any women who do not adhere to an standard of moral purity. In the late 20th century, theorists argued that misogyny is both a cause and a result of. Sociologist has argued that 'misandry lacks the systemic, trans-historic, institutionalized, and legislated antipathy of misogyny'. Criticism of the concept, a self-described 'dissident feminist' who has often been at odds with other academic feminists, argues that there are serious flaws in the -inspired interpretation of misogyny that is prevalent in. In contrast, Paglia argues that a close reading of historical texts reveals that men do not hate women but fear them.

Christian Groes-Green has argued that misogyny must be seen in relation to its opposite which he terms philogyny. Criticizing 's theory of hegemonic masculinities he shows how philogynous masculinities play out among youth in Maputo, Mozambique. • ^ Code, Lorraine (2000).

Encyclopedia of Feminist Theories (1st ed.). London: Routledge. • Kramarae, Cheris (2000). Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women. New York: Routledge. • ^ Clack, Beverley (1999).

Misogyny in the Western Philosophical Tradition: A Reader. New York: Routledge. • Johnson, Allan G (2000)... Retrieved November 21, 2011., ('ideology' in all small capitals in original).

• Flood, Michael (2007-07-18)... • The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (Oxford: Clarendon Press (Oxford Univ. Press), [4th] ed. 1993 ( )) ( SOED) ('[h]atred of women').

• The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 1992 ( )) ('[h]atred of women'). • Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged (G. Merriam, 1966) ('a hatred of women'). • Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary (N.Y.: Random House, 2d ed. The Sydney Morning Herald.

Retrieved 15 November 2016. • Daley, Gemma (17 October 2012).. Retrieved 21 October 2012.

• Roberts, J.W (2002-06-01)... • The is on page 255 of volume three of ( SVF, Old Stoic Fragments), see. • ^ A recent critical text with translation is in to Will Deming, Paul on Marriage and Celibacy: The Hellenistic Background of 1 Corinthians 7, pp. Misogunia appears in the on page 224 of Deming, as the fifth word in line 33 of his Greek text. It is split over lines 25–26 in von Arnim.

63, in von Arnim, J. Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta. Leipzig: Teubner, 1903.

Misogyny is the first word on the page. Tieleman, Reconstruction and Interpretations, (Leiden:, 2003), p. • Ricardo Salles, Metaphysics, Soul, and Ethics in Ancient Thought: Themes from the Work of Richard Sorabji, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2005), 485. Retrieved 2013-10-01. • Pappas, Nickolas (2003-09-09)... • and, ( LSJ), revised and augmented by Henry Stuart Jones and Roderick McKenzie, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940). •,, Book 7 [Alexandria] Chapter 3.

•,, translated by Maurice Balme, contributor,, 2002. • He is supported (or followed) by 's 9th century Canones, edited by, Anecdota Graeca e codd. Manuscriptis bibliothecarum Oxoniensium, vol. 2, (, 1835), p. • ^,, Book 4, Chapter 11.

• Holland, J: Misogyny: The World's Oldest Prejudice, pp. Avalon Publishing Group, 2006. Retrieved 2013-10-01. • Rogers, Katharine M.

The Troublesome Helpmate: A History of Misogyny in Literature, 1966. • Ruthven, K. The council on biblical manhood and womanhood. Retrieved 6 January 2015. • Hove, Richard.

Equality in Christ? Galatians 3:28 and the Gender Dispute. (Wheaton: Crossway, 1999) Page 17. • Campbell, Ken M (2003-10-01)... • Rinck, Margaret J. Christian Men Who Hate Women: Healing Hurting Relationships.. • Weigel, Christopher West; with a foreword by George (2003).

Theology of the body explained: a commentary on John Paul II's 'Gospel of the body'. Leominster, Herefordshire: Gracewing.. • 'Verse 34 of Chapter 4 is an oft-cited Verse in the Qur'an used to demonstrate that Islam is structurally patriarchal, and thus Islam internalizes male dominance.' Dahlia Eissa, ': The influence of sex and gender stereotyping in the interpretation of the Qur'an and the implications for a modernist exegesis of rights', Occasional Paper 11 in Occasional Papers (Empowerment International, 1999). • Hashmi, Taj..

Driver For Labelflash Dvd Driver. Retrieved August 11, 2008. • Nomani, Asra Q. (October 22, 2006).. Washington Post. Webber (2004).

Expanding curriculum theory: dis/positions and lines of flight. Psychology Press. • Scherstuhl, Alan (June 21, 2010)... Retrieved 2013-10-01.

• ^ Witt, Charlotte; Shapiro, Lisa (2016-01-01). Zalta, Edward N., ed. (Spring 2016 ed.).

• ^ Smith, Nicholas D.. Journal of the History of Philosophy. 21 (4): 467–478.. • History of Animals, 608b. 1–14 • Blum, C.. Eighteenth-Century Life. 34 (3): 51–54..

• ^ Bergman, Gerald (2002-12-01). 'The history of the human female inferiority ideas in evolutionary biology'.

Rivista Di Biologia. 95 (3): 379–412...

• ^ Grimwood, Tom (2008-01-01).. Kritike: An Online Journal of Philosophy. 2 (2): 131–145.. • Durant, Will (1983). The Story of Philosophy.

New York, N.Y.: Simon and Schuster. • Nietzsche, Friedrich (1886).. Retrieved 23 January 2014. • Burgard, Peter J. Nietzsche and the Feminine. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press.

• Nietzsche, Friedrich (1889).. Retrieved 23 January 2014. Holub, Nietzsche and The Women's Question. • Gallagher, Shaun (1997)..

• Alanen, Lilli; Witt, Charlotte (2004)... • ^ Jane, Emma Alice (2014).

' 'Back to the kitchen, cunt': speaking the unspeakable about online misogyny'.. 28 (4): 558–570.. • Philipovic, Jill (2007). 'Blogging While Female: How Internet Misogyny Parallels Real-World Harassment'. Yale Journal of Law and Feminism. 19 (2): 295–303. •, • ^ Kasumovic, Michael M.; Kuznekoff, Jeffrey H.

10 (7): e0131613.... • ^ Bearman, Steve, Neill Korobov, and Avril Thorne. 'The fabric of internalized sexism.' Journal of Integrated Social Sciences 1, no.

1 (2009): 10-47. • Szymanski, Gupta, and Carr.

'Internalized Misogyny as a Moderator of the Link between Sexist Events and Women’s Psychological Distress.' Sex Roles 16, no. 1-2: 101-109.

• Bearman, Steve; Korobov, Neill; Thorne, Avril. 'The fabric of internalized sexism.' Journal of Integrated Social Sciences 1, no. • Wyman, Leah M.; Dionisopolous, George N. Taylor & Francis.

23 (2): 209–237.:. Retrieved 13 July 2014.

• E.g., Kate Millet's Sexual Politics, adapted from her doctoral dissertation is normally cited as the originator of this viewpoint; though Katharine M Rogers had also published similar ideas previously. • Flood, Michael (2007-07-18)...

• 'Marxist feminists reduced the historical cult of woman’s virginity to her property value, her worth on the male marriage market.' , Paglia 1991, Sexual Persona p. 27 • Paglia, Camille (1991)., NY:Vintage, Chapter 1 and passim. • Groes-Green, C. 'Philogynous masculinities: Contextualizing alternative manhood in Mozambique'. Men and Masculinities 15(2):91-111.

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