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Results Mean (±SD) PEEP values on days 1 through 4 were 8.3±3.2 cm of water in the lower-PEEP group and 13.2±3.5 cm of water in the higher-PEEP group (P. Mechanical ventilation is critical for the survival of most patients with acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). However, some approaches to mechanical ventilation may cause additional lung injury, which could delay or prevent resolution of respiratory failure. Ventilator-induced lung injury may be caused by overdistention of aerated lung regions, especially when large tidal volumes are used.

Ventilator-induced lung injury may also occur if a substantial portion of the lung is not aerated at end-expiration because of atelectasis, flooding, and consolidation. This may cause excessive mechanical forces in aerated lung regions, between aerated and nonaerated lung regions, or in bronchioles and alveoli that open and close with each breath. The proportion of nonaerated lung may be reduced by applying positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP). This therapy usually improves arterial oxygenation, but it may cause circulatory depression and increase pulmonary edema.

Moreover, PEEP may increase airway pressures and lung volumes, which could contribute to ventilator-induced lung injury from overdistention. Most patients with acute lung injury and ARDS have been treated with PEEP values of 5 to 12 cm of water, a range that presumably reflects physicians' attempts to balance the beneficial effects of PEEP on arterial oxygenation with these adverse effects. PEEP levels that exceed these traditional levels may decrease ventilator-induced lung injury by further reducing the proportion of nonaerated lung. Moreover, higher PEEP levels may allow arterial-oxygenation goals to be met with the use of a lower fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO 2), which could reduce the adverse pulmonary effects of oxygen. In recent studies of patients with acute lung injury and ARDS, ventilation strategies that included higher PEEP levels were associated with better survival and lower levels of inflammatory mediators in plasma and bronchoalveolar-lavage fluid. However, the patients who received higher PEEP levels also received lower tidal volumes and inspiratory airway pressures. Therefore, it is not clear whether the better survival and lower levels of inflammatory mediators resulted from the higher PEEP levels, the lower tidal volumes and airway pressures, or both.

In another trial, mortality was lower in a study group that received lower tidal volumes and inspiratory pressures and PEEP levels that were similar to those used by most clinicians. We conducted the present trial to determine whether the use of higher PEEP levels would improve clinical outcomes among patients with acute lung injury and ARDS who were receiving mechanical ventilation with lower tidal volumes and inspiratory airway pressures. Patients Patients who were intubated and receiving mechanical ventilation were eligible if there was a sudden decrease in the ratio of the partial pressure of arterial oxygen (PaO 2) to the FiO 2 of 300 or less (adjusted to 253 in Denver and Salt Lake City because of the altitude), a recent appearance of bilateral pulmonary infiltrates consistent with the presence of edema, and no clinical evidence of left atrial hypertension (defined by a pulmonary-capillary wedge pressure of 18 mm Hg or less, if measured). Ventilator Procedures We designed two different strategies for adjusting PEEP and FiO 2 in discrete steps to maintain an arterial oxyhemoglobin saturation (measured by pulse oximetry) of 88 to 95 percent or a PaO 2 of 55 to 80 mm Hg ( Table 1 Summary of Ventilator Procedures in the Lower- and Higher-PEEP Groups. The lower-PEEP strategy represents a consensus of how the investigators and clinical colleagues balanced beneficial and adverse effects of PEEP in 1995.

This strategy was used in our previous trial, which compared ventilator strategies involving traditional and lower tidal volumes and resulted in PEEP levels that were consistent with those reported in surveys of clinicians' practices. The higher-PEEP strategy was designed to use PEEP levels that were similar to those used in a previous trial in which higher PEEP levels and smaller tidal volumes were associated with better survival.

When our trial started, we required a PEEP of at least 12 cm of water for at least 12 hours after randomization to the higher-PEEP group. However, after 171 patients had been enrolled in the trial, the difference in mean PEEP levels between study groups on days 1 through 7 was less than the difference in the previous study that tested the effects of higher PEEP levels and smaller tidal volumes. To approximate more closely the separation in PEEP between study groups as in this previous trial, we modified the higher-PEEP strategy by eliminating the steps with a PEEP of less than 12 cm of water and requiring a minimum PEEP of 14 cm of water for the first 48 hours ( ).

These changes in the protocol were made by the steering committee without knowledge of the clinical outcome data. Other ventilator variables were adjusted in the same manner in both groups. In all patients, we used a tidal-volume goal of 6 ml per kilogram of predicted body weight and an inspiratory plateau pressure of 30 cm of water or less. Weaning was initiated when acceptable arterial oxygenation could be maintained at the same or similar PEEP and FiO 2 steps. The same weaning procedures were used in both study groups. Recruitment Maneuvers In the first 80 patients randomly assigned to the higher-PEEP group, we assessed the safety and efficacy of recruitment maneuvers — that is, single sustained inflations of the lungs to higher airway pressures and volumes than are obtained during tidal ventilation — in an effort to improve arterial oxygenation. One or two such maneuvers were conducted during the first four days after randomization by applying continuous positive airway pressure of 35 to 40 cm of water for 30 seconds.

The subsequent mean increase in arterial oxygenation was small and transient. Therefore, we discontinued recruitment maneuvers for the remainder of the trial. Statistical Analysis The primary outcome measure was the proportion of patients who died before they were discharged home while breathing without assistance. Patients alive in health care facilities at 60 days, regardless of their requirement for ventilation assistance, were considered to have been discharged home while breathing without assistance. Our estimates indicated that a sample size of 750 patients would yield a statistical power of 89 percent to detect a reduction in mortality from 28 percent in the lower-PEEP group to 18 percent in the higher-PEEP group. An independent data and safety monitoring board conducted interim analyses after the enrollment of successive groups of approximately 250 patients. Asymmetric stopping boundaries (with a two-sided α=0.05) were designed to allow early termination of the trial if the use of higher PEEP was found to reduce mortality or if there was a low probability that the trial could demonstrate a lower mortality rate in the higher-PEEP group than in the lower-PEEP group (futility stopping rule).

Secondary outcome variables included the number of ventilator-free days (the number of days a patient breathed without assistance for at least 48 consecutive hours from day 1 to day 28), the number of days a patient was not in the intensive care unit (ICU) from day 1 to day 28, and the number of days without organ failure from day 1 to day 28. We report means (±SD), 95 percent confidence intervals, and interquartile ranges where appropriate. We compared baseline variables using Student's t-test or Fisher's exact test. We used Wilcoxon's test to compare day 0 and day 3 plasma levels of biologic marker, the number of ventilator-free days, the number of ICU-free days, and the number of organ-failure–free days, all of which had skewed distributions. We used the 60-day cumulative mortality rate to compare the proportion of patients in each group who died before being discharged from the hospital while breathing without assistance. All reported P values are two-sided.

To adjust for baseline imbalances in covariates between study groups, we used a forward stepwise selection scheme to identify predictors of mortality from the 27 baseline variables recorded for 473 patients who received the strategy of mechanical ventilation involving lower tidal volumes in our two previous trials. Missing values were replaced by group mean values. Dummy variables indicated missing values. We used P values of 0.05 to enter and remove variables from the regression. We identified the following predictors: age, score on the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE III; scores can range from 0 to 299, with higher scores indicating a higher probability of death), plateau pressure, missing plateau pressure, number of organ failures, number of hospital days before enrollment in the trial, and the alveolar–arterial difference in the partial pressure of oxygen.

We then fit a logistic model to the data in the current trial with the use of these seven covariates and study-group assignment. The estimates from this model were used to calculate a predicted mortality for each patient if treated with lower PEEP and also if treated with higher PEEP. The averages of these predictions for all patients provide adjusted mortality rates, which represent estimated mortality rates for the lower- and higher-PEEP study groups if the distributions of the covariates had been completely balanced between groups. The standard error of these rates and their difference was calculated by means of the bootstrap technique. Results The data and safety monitoring board stopped the trial at the second interim analysis, after 549 patients had been enrolled, on the basis of the specified futility stopping rule. At this time it was calculated that if the study had continued to the planned maximal enrollment of 750 patients, the probability of demonstrating the superiority of the higher-PEEP strategy was less than 1 percent under the alternative hypothesis based on the unadjusted mortality difference. Most of the baseline characteristics of the two study groups were similar ( Table 2 Baseline Characteristics of the Patients.

However, in the higher-PEEP group, the mean age was significantly higher (P=0.004) and the mean PaO 2:FiO 2 was significantly lower (P=0.03). The mean PEEP values on days 1 through 4 were 8.3±3.2 cm of water in the lower-PEEP group and 13.2±3.5 cm of water in the higher-PEEP group (P. Discussion In this truncated study of 549 patients with acute lung injury and ARDS, there were no significant differences in mortality rates or the numbers of ventilator-free days, ICU-free days, or organ-failure–free days between the lower- and higher-PEEP study groups. Imbalances between the groups in some baseline characteristics (resulting from chance) could have influenced these results. However, we identified predictors of mortality in previous studies of similar patients and used this information to adjust for effects of the imbalances in baseline characteristics in the present study. Even after this adjustment, the difference in mortality between study groups was not significant.

Consistent with the absence of significant differences between the study groups in clinical outcomes, we found no significant differences between study groups in the changes in plasma levels of biologic markers of inflammation and lung injury (Table 5 in the ). It is possible that higher PEEP values reduced ventilator-induced lung injury from ventilation with nonaerated lung regions but that the adverse effects of higher PEEP counteracted the beneficial effects. Plateau pressures were higher in the higher-PEEP group ( ), suggesting that there could have been more ventilator-induced lung injury from overdistention.

The mean plateau pressure in the higher-PEEP group was less than 30 cm of water, which some investigators have suggested is a safe limit. However, overdistention may occur in some patients at plateau pressures below 30 cm of water. Higher PEEP values may also decrease cardiac output and increase pulmonary edema. Our method for setting higher PEEP levels differed from the method used in previous studies in which higher PEEP levels were associated with better outcomes. In those studies, higher PEEP levels were set according to the pressure-volume characteristics of each patient's respiratory system.

This approach resulted in mean PEEP levels of approximately 16 cm of water during the first 36 hours and 13 cm of water on days 2 through 7. In our trial, higher PEEP levels were set and adjusted according to each patient's arterial-oxygenation response to the protocol PEEP–FiO 2 settings. This approach resulted in mean PEEP levels of approximately 15 cm of water on day 1 and 13 cm of water on days 2 through 7. The differences in PEEP levels between these trials are small. However, it is possible that higher PEEP levels in our trial would have resulted in better clinical outcomes. In a previous study in which higher PEEP levels were associated with better survival, recruitment maneuvers (single sustained inflations of the lungs to higher airway pressures and volumes than are obtained during tidal ventilation) were conducted early in the course of the disease in the higher-PEEP group.

We did not conduct recruitment maneuvers in most patients in our higher-PEEP group because the effects of recruitment maneuvers on arterial oxygenation were small and transient in the first 80 patients we studied, and the practice was removed from the trial protocol. It is possible that the combination of our higher-PEEP strategy and different recruitment maneuvers could have resulted in greater lung recruitment and thus offered increased protection against ventilator-induced lung injury. Patients in both groups received lower tidal volumes and inspiratory airway pressures, as in our previous study. The resulting smaller tidal changes in lung volume and airway pressure could also have reduced the injurious mechanical forces that occur during ventilation when substantial portions of the lung are not aerated at end-expiration. If so, then the effects of higher PEEP on mortality, if any, may be small when added to a mechanical-ventilation strategy that uses lower tidal volumes and inspiratory pressures.

The current trial was designed to detect larger effects, as suggested to occur in previous studies. Our results suggest that in patients with acute lung injury and ARDS who receive mechanical ventilation with lower tidal volumes and inspiratory pressures, raising PEEP to levels that exceed those used in our lower-PEEP strategy does not improve important clinical outcomes. In our previous study of mechanical-ventilation strategies, the mortality rate before discharge home or to day 60 was 30 percent among patients who received the same lower-tidal-volume and pressure-limited strategy as was used in this study. This mortality rate is lower than the rates among patients with acute lung injury and ARDS who received mechanical ventilation with higher tidal volumes. The mortality rate before discharge home or to day 60 for all patients in the current study was 26 percent.

This finding further emphasizes the value of a strategy that uses lower tidal volumes and inspiratory pressures than were used in the past. Source Information The members of the Writing Committee (Roy G.

Brower, M.D., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; Paul N. Lanken, M.D., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Neil MacIntyre, M.D., Duke University, Durham, N.C.; Michael A. Matthay, M.D., University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco; Alan Morris, M.D., LDS Hospital, Salt Lake City; and Marek Ancukiewicz, Ph.D., David Schoenfeld, Ph.D., and B. Taylor Thompson, M.D., Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston) of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network assume responsibility for the integrity of the article. Address reprint requests to Dr. Brower at Johns Hopkins University, 1830 East Monument St., Rm.

549, Baltimore, MD 21205. Appendix Participants in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) ARDS Clinical Trials Network were as follows: Investigators (principal investigators are marked with an asterisk): Cleveland Clinic Foundation — H.P. Wiedemann,* A.C. Arroliga, C.J.

Fisher, Jr., J.J. Komara, Jr., P.

Periz-Trepichio; Denver Health Medical Center — P.E. Parsons; Denver Veterans Affairs Medical Center — C.

Welsh; Duke University Medical Center — W.J. Fulkerson, Jr.,* N.

MacIntyre, L. Mallatratt, M. Sebastian, J. Govert; Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center — J. Sevransky, S.

Murray; Johns Hopkins Hospital — R.G. Thompson, H.E. Murray; LDS Hospital — A.H. Orme, Jr., L. Gleich (deceased); McKay-Dee Hospital — C. D'Hulst; MetroHealth Medical Center of Cleveland — J.R.

Smith; San Francisco General Hospital Medical Center — R. Luce; Thomas Jefferson University Hospital — J. Yannarell; University of California, San Francisco — M.A. Matthay,* M.D. Nuckton; University of Colorado Health Sciences Center — E. McIntyre, K.E.

Greene; University of Maryland — H.J. Silverman,* C.

Shanholtz, W. Corral; University of Michigan — G.B. Arnoldi, R.H.

Watts; University of Pennsylvania — P.N. Lanken,* J.D. Hanson, III, P.M. Shapiro; University of Utah Hospital — R.

Mone; University of Washington/Harborview Medical Center — L.D. Hiemstra, R.V. Steinberg, Margaret Neff, Patricia Berry-Bell; Utah Valley Regional Medical Center — T. Thaut; Vanderbilt University — A.P.

Christman, S. Ware; Clinical Coordinating Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School — D.A. Schoenfeld,* B.T. Ancukiewicz, D. Hayden, MA, F. Morse; NHLBI Staff — D.B.

Waclawiw*; Steering Committee — G.R. Bernard (chair); Data and Safety Monitoring Board — R.G. Spragg (chair), J. Gray Secundy, A.S. Turnbull; Protocol Review Committee — J.G.N.

Garcia (chair), S.S. Emerson, S.K. Pingleton, M.D. References • 1 Dreyfuss D, Saumon G. Ventilator-induced lung injury: lessons from experimental studies.

Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:294-323 • 2 Parker JC, Hernandez LA, Peevy KJ. Mechanisms of ventilator-induced lung injury.

Crit Care Med 1993;21:131-143 • 3 Tsuno K, Miura K, Takeya M, Kolobow T, Morioka T. Histopathologic pulmonary changes from mechanical ventilation at high peak airway pressures. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;143:1115-1120 • 4 Parker JC, Townsley MI, Rippe B, Taylor AE, Thigpen J. Increased microvascular permeability in dog lungs due to high peak airway pressures. J Appl Physiol 19-1816 • 5 Dreyfuss D, Soler P, Basset G, Saumon G.

High inflation pressure pulmonary edema: respective effects of high airway pressure, high tidal volume, and positive end-expiratory pressure. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988;137:1159-1164 • 6 Martynowicz MA, Walters BJ, Hubmayr RD.

Mechanisms of recruitment in oleic acid-injured lungs. J Appl Physiol 20-1753 • 7 Mead J, Takishima T, Leith D. Stress distribution in lungs: a model of pulmonary elasticity. J Appl Physiol 1970;28:596-608 • 8 Muscedere JG, Mullen JBM, Gan K, Slutsky AS.

Tidal ventilation at low airway pressures can augment lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;149:1327-1334 • 9 Miro AM, Pinsky MR.

Heart-lung interactions. In: Tobin M, ed. Principles and practice of mechanical ventilation. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994:647-71. • 10 Jardin F.

PEEP and ventricular function. Intensive Care Med 1994;20:169-170 • 11 Pinsky MR. The hemodynamic consequences of mechanical ventilation: an evolving story. Intensive Care Med 1997;23:493-503 • 12 Toung TJ, Saharia P, Mitzner WA, Permutt S, Cameron JL. The beneficial and harmful effects of positive end expiratory pressure.

Surg Gynecol Obstet 1978;147:518-524 • 13 Albert RK, Kirk W, Pitts C, Butler J. Extra-alveolar vessel fluid filtration coefficients in excised and in situ canine lobes. J Appl Physiol 19-1559 • 14 Carmichael LC, Dorinsky PM, Higgins SB, et al. Diagnosis and therapy of acute respiratory distress syndrome in adults: an international survey. J Crit Care 1996;11:9-18 • 15 Thompson BT, Hayden D, Matthay MA, Brower R, Parsons PE. Clinicians' approaches to mechanical ventilation in acute lung injury and ARDS. Chest 2001;120:1622-1627 • 16 Esteban A, Anzueto A, Frutos F, et al.

Characteristics and outcomes in adult patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a 28-day international study. JAMA 2002;287:345-355 • 17 Corbridge TC, Wood LDH.

• • • A blog (a of the expression ' weblog') is a discussion or informational published on the consisting of discrete, often informal -style text entries ('posts'). Posts are typically displayed in reverse chronological order, so that the most recent post appears first, at the top of the web page. Until 2009, blogs were usually the work of a single individual, [ ] occasionally of a small group, and often covered a single subject or topic.

In the 2010s, 'multi-author blogs' (MABs) have developed, with posts written by large numbers of authors and sometimes professionally edited. MABs from, other media outlets,,,, and similar institutions account for an increasing quantity of blog traffic.

The rise of and other ' systems helps integrate MABs and single-author blogs into the news media. Blog can also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add content to a blog. The emergence and growth of blogs in the late 1990s coincided with the advent of web publishing tools that facilitated the posting of content by non-technical users who did not have much experience with. Previously, a knowledge of such technologies as and had been required to publish content on the Web, and as such, early Web users tended to be and computer enthusiasts. In the 2010s, the majority are interactive websites, allowing visitors to leave online comments, and it is this interactivity that distinguishes them from other static websites. In that sense, blogging can be seen as a form of.

Indeed, bloggers do not only produce content to post on their blogs, but also often build social relations with their readers and other bloggers. However, there are high-readership blogs which do not allow comments. Many blogs provide commentary on a particular subject or topic, ranging from politics to sports. Others function as more personal, and others function more as of a particular individual or company. A typical blog combines text, digital images, and links to other blogs,, and other media related to its topic. The ability of readers to leave publicly viewable comments, and interact with other commenters, is an important contribution to the popularity of many blogs. However, blog owners or authors often moderate and filter online comments to remove or other offensive content.

Most blogs are primarily textual, although some focus on art (), photographs (), videos ( or 'vlogs'), music (), and audio (). In education, blogs can be used as instructional resources.

These blogs are referred to as. Is another type of blogging, featuring very short posts. On 16 February 2011, there were over 156 million public blogs in existence. On 20 February 2014, there were around 172 million and 75.8 million blogs in existence worldwide. According to critics and other bloggers, is the most popular blogging service used today. However, Blogger does not offer public statistics.

Lists 1.3 million blogs as of February 22, 2014. Main articles: and The term 'weblog' was coined by on 17 December 1997.

The short form, 'blog', was coined by Peter Merholz, who jokingly broke the word weblog into the phrase we blog in the sidebar of his blog Peterme.com in April or May 1999. Shortly thereafter, at used 'blog' as both a noun and verb ('to blog', meaning 'to edit one's weblog or to post to one's weblog') and devised the term 'blogger' in connection with Pyra Labs' product, leading to the popularization of the terms. Origins Before blogging became popular, digital communities took many forms, including, commercial online services such as, (BIX) and the early,, and (BBS). In the 1990s, software, created running conversations with 'threads'. Threads are topical connections between messages on a virtual '.

From 14 June 1993, Mosaic Communications Corporation maintained their 'What’s New' list of new websites, updated daily and archived monthly. The page was accessible by a special 'What's New' button in the Mosaic web browser. The modern blog evolved from the, where people would keep a running account of the events in their personal lives. Most such writers called themselves diarists,, or journalers., who began personal blogging in 1994 while a student at, is generally recognized as one of the earlier bloggers, as is. 's Scripting News is also credited with being one of the older and longer running weblogs. The Australian Netguide magazine maintained the Daily Net News on their web site from 1996. Daily Net News ran links and daily reviews of new websites, mostly in Australia.

Another early blog was Wearable Wireless Webcam, an online shared diary of a person's personal life combining text, digital video, and digital pictures transmitted live from a wearable computer and device to a web site in 1994. This practice of semi-automated blogging with live video together with text was referred to as, and such journals were also used as evidence in legal matters. Early blogs were simply manually updated components of common. However, the evolution of electronic and software tools to facilitate the production and maintenance of Web articles posted in reverse chronological order made the publishing process feasible to a much larger, less technical, population.

Ultimately, this resulted in the distinct class of online publishing that produces blogs we recognize today. For instance, the use of some sort of browser-based software is now a typical aspect of 'blogging'. Blogs can be hosted by dedicated, or they can be run using blog software, or on regular. Some early bloggers, such as, who began in 1997, actually referred to their online presence as a, before the term blog entered common usage. Rise in popularity After a slow start, blogging rapidly gained in popularity. Blog usage spread during 1999 and the years following, being further popularized by the near-simultaneous arrival of the first hosted blog tools: • launched in October 1998, which soon grew to thousands of online diaries.

Open Diary innovated the reader comment, becoming the first blog community where readers could add comments to other writers' blog entries. • started in March 1999.

• Andrew Smales created Pitas.com in July 1999 as an easier alternative to maintaining a 'news page' on a Web site, followed by DiaryLand in September 1999, focusing more on a personal diary community. • and () launched in August 1999 (purchased by in February 2003) Political impact. On 6 December 2002, Josh Marshall's talkingpointsmemo.com blog called attention to U.S. Senator comments regarding Senator Thurmond.

Senator Lott was eventually to resign his Senate leadership position over the matter. An early milestone in the rise in importance of blogs came in 2002, when many bloggers focused on comments. Senator Lott, at a party honoring, praised Senator Thurmond by suggesting that the United States would have been better off had Thurmond been elected president. Lott's critics saw these comments as a tacit approval of, a policy advocated by Thurmond's. This view was reinforced by documents and recorded interviews dug up by bloggers. (See 's.) Though Lott's comments were made at a public event attended by the media, no major media organizations reported on his controversial comments until after blogs broke the story.

Blogging helped to create a political crisis that forced Lott to step down as majority leader. Similarly, blogs were among the driving forces behind the ' scandal. To wit: (television journalist) presented documents (on the CBS show ) that conflicted with accepted accounts of President Bush's military service record.

Bloggers declared the documents to be and presented evidence and arguments in support of that view. Consequently, CBS apologized for what it said were inadequate reporting techniques (see ). Many bloggers view this scandal as the advent of blogs' acceptance by the mass media, both as a news source and opinion and as means of applying political pressure. [ ] The impact of these stories gave greater credibility to blogs as a medium of news dissemination. Though often seen as partisan gossips, [ ] bloggers sometimes lead the way in bringing key information to public light, with mainstream media having to follow their lead. More often, however, news blogs tend to react to material already published by the mainstream media. Meanwhile, an increasing number of experts blogged, making blogs a source of in-depth analysis.

[ ] In, some political bloggers have started to challenge the dominance of official, overwhelmingly pro-government media. Bloggers such as and have many followers and the latter's nickname for the ruling party as the 'party of crooks and thieves' has been adopted by anti-regime protesters. This led to the calling Navalny 'the man fears most' in March 2012. Mainstream popularity By 2004, the role of blogs became increasingly mainstream, as, news services, and candidates began using them as tools for outreach and opinion forming. Blogging was established by politicians and political candidates to express opinions on war and other issues and cemented blogs' role as a news source. (See and.) Even politicians not actively campaigning, such as the, began to blog to bond with constituents. In January 2005, magazine listed eight bloggers whom business people 'could not ignore':,,,,, Jason Goldman,, and.

Was among the first national governments to set up an official blog. Under, the became active in adopting initiatives, including an official and a.

The Foreign Ministry also held a press conference via about its, with Saranga answering questions from the public in common text-messaging abbreviations during a live worldwide. The questions and answers were later posted on, the country's official political blog. The impact of blogging upon the mainstream media has also been acknowledged by governments. In 2009, the presence of the American journalism industry had declined to the point that several newspaper corporations were filing for bankruptcy, resulting in less direct competition between newspapers within the same circulation area. Discussion emerged as to whether the newspaper industry would benefit from a stimulus package by the federal government.

President acknowledged the emerging influence of blogging upon society by saying 'if the direction of the news is all blogosphere, all opinions, with no serious fact-checking, no serious attempts to put stories in context, then what you will end up getting is people shouting at each other across the void but not a lot of mutual understanding”. Between 2009 and 2012, an for blogging was awarded. A screenshot from the BlogActive website. There are many different types of blogs, differing not only in the type of content, but also in the way that content is delivered or written. Personal blogs The personal blog is an ongoing online diary or commentary written by an individual, rather than a corporation or organization.

While the vast majority of personal blogs attract very few readers, other than the blogger's immediate family and friends, a small number of personal blogs have become popular, to the point that they have attracted lucrative advertising sponsorship. A tiny number of personal bloggers have become famous, both in the online community and in the real world.

Collaborative blogs or group blogs A type of weblog in which posts are written and published by more than one author. The majority of high-profile collaborative blogs are based around a single uniting theme, such as politics, technology or advocacy. In recent years, the has seen the emergence and growing popularity of more collaborative efforts, often set up by already established bloggers wishing to pool time and resources, both to reduce the pressure of maintaining a popular website and to attract a larger readership. Microblogging is the practice of posting small pieces of digital content—which could be text, pictures, links, short videos, or other media—on the Internet. Microblogging offers a portable communication mode that feels organic and spontaneous to many users. It has captured the public imagination, in part because the short posts are easy to read on the go or when waiting. Friends use it to keep in touch, business associates use it to coordinate meetings or share useful resources, and celebrities and politicians (or their publicists) microblog about concert dates, lectures, book releases, or tour schedules.

A wide and growing range of add-on tools enables sophisticated updates and interaction with other applications. The resulting profusion of functionality is helping to define new possibilities for this type of communication. Examples of these include,, and, by far the largest,.

Corporate and organizational blogs A blog can be private, as in most cases, or it can be for or or purposes. Blogs used internally, and only available to employees via an are called. Companies use internal corporate blogs enhance the communication, culture and in a. Internal corporate blogs can be used to communicate news about company policies or procedures, build employee and improve. Companies and other organizations also use external, publicly accessible blogs for,, or purposes. Some organizations have a blog authored by their executive; in practice, many of these executive blog posts are penned by a, who makes posts in the style of the credited author.

Similar blogs for clubs and societies are called club blogs, group blogs, or by similar names; typical use is to inform members and other interested parties of club and member activities. Aggregated blogs Individuals or organization may aggregate selected feeds on specific topic, product or service and provide combined view for its readers. This allows readers to concentrate on reading instead of searching for quality on-topic content and managing subscriptions. Many such aggregation called planets from name of that perform such aggregation, hosting sites usually have planet. By Some blogs focus on a particular subject, such as, journalism blogs,, (also known as travelogs), gardening blogs, house blogs,,, beauty blogs, lifestyle blogs, party blogs, wedding blogs, photography blogs,, psychology blogs, sociology blogs,,,, quizzing blogs, (often referred to as a blawgs),.

/ blogs are becoming increasing popular. Two common types of genre blogs are and. A blog featuring discussions especially about and is not uncommonly called a and one made popular is by who created Womenonthefence.com which is syndicated to over two million readers monthly. While not a legitimate type of blog, one used for the sole purpose of spamming is known as a. By media type A blog comprising videos is called a, one comprising links is called a, a site containing a portfolio of sketches is called a or one comprising photos is called a.

Blogs with shorter posts and mixed media types are called. Blogs that are written on typewriters and then scanned are called or typecast blogs. Drivers License Test Cost Ohio. A rare type of blog hosted on the is known as a.

By device A blog can also be defined by which type of device is used to compose it. A blog written by a like a or could be called a. One early blog was Wearable Wireless Webcam, an online shared diary of a person's personal life combining text, video, and pictures transmitted live from a wearable computer and device to a web site. This practice of semi-automated blogging with live video together with text was referred to as. Such journals have been used as evidence in legal matters.

[ ] A reverse blog is composed by its users rather than a single blogger. This system has the characteristics of a blog, and the writing of several authors. These can be written by several contributing authors on a topic, or opened up for anyone to write. There is typically some limit to the number of entries to keep it from operating like a. [ ] Community and cataloging. An artist's depiction of the interconnections between blogs and blog authors in the ' in 2007. The collective community of all blogs and blog authors, particularly notable and widely read blogs, is known as the blogosphere.

Since all blogs are on the internet by definition, they may be seen as interconnected and socially networked, through blogrolls, comments, (refbacks, trackbacks or pingbacks), and backlinks. Discussions 'in the blogosphere' are occasionally used by the media as a gauge of public opinion on various issues. Because new, untapped communities of bloggers and their readers can emerge in the space of a few years, pay close attention to 'trends in the blogosphere'. Several blog search engines have been used to search blog contents, such as,, and. Technorati was one of the more popular blog search engines, but the website stopped indexing blogs and assigning authority scores in May 2014.

The research community is working on going beyond simple keyword search, by inventing new ways to navigate through huge amounts of information present in the, as demonstrated by projects like, which was shut down in 2012. [ ] Blogging communities and directories Several exist that connect people to blogs and bloggers to other bloggers. Some of these communities include Indiblogger, Blogadda, Blog Chatter, BlogCatalog and. Interest-specific blogging platforms are also available. For instance, Blogster has a sizable community of political bloggers among its members. Aggregates international bloggers, 'with emphasis on voices that are not ordinarily heard in international mainstream media.'

Blogging and It is common for blogs to feature or promotional content, either to financially benefit the blogger, support website hosting costs, or to promote the blogger's favorite causes or products. The popularity of blogs has also given rise to in which a company will create a fictional blog as a marketing tool to promote a product. As the popularity of blogging continues to rise, the commercialisation of blogging is rapidly increasing. Many corporations and companies collaborate with bloggers to increase advertising and engage online communities towards their products. In the book Fans, Bloggers, and Gamers, Henry Jenkins stated that 'Bloggers take knowledge in their own hands, enabling successful navigation within and between these emerging knowledge cultures.

One can see such behaviour as co-optation into commodity culture insofar as it sometimes collaborates with corporate interests, but one can also see it as increasing the diversity of media culture, providing opportunities for greater inclusiveness, and making more responsive to consumers.' This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2016) As of 2008, blogging had become such a mania that a new blog was created every second of every minute of every hour of every day. Researchers have actively analyzed the dynamics of how blogs become popular.

There are essentially two measures of this: popularity through citations, as well as popularity through affiliation (i.e., blogroll). The basic conclusion from studies of the structure of blogs is that while it takes time for a blog to become popular through blogrolls, can boost popularity more quickly, and are perhaps more indicative of popularity and authority than blogrolls, since they denote that people are actually reading the blog's content and deem it valuable or noteworthy in specific cases. The project was launched by researchers in the to crawl the Web and gather data from thousands of blogs in order to investigate their social properties. Information was gathered by the tool for over four years, during which it autonomously tracked the most contagious information spreading in the blog community, ranking it by recency and popularity. It can, therefore, [ ] be considered the first instantiation of a. The project was replaced by which in turn has been replaced by spinn3r.com.

Blogs are given rankings by (web hits of Alexa Toolbar users), and formerly by blog search engine based on the number of incoming links (Technorati stopped doing this in 2014). In August 2006, Technorati found that the most linked-to blog on the internet was that of Chinese actress. Chinese media reported that this blog received more than 50 million page views, claiming it to be the most popular blog in the world. Technorati rated to be the most-read group-written blog. Blurring with the mass media Many bloggers, particularly those engaged in, are amateur journalists, and thus they differentiate themselves from the professional reporters and editors who work in organizations. Other bloggers are media professionals who are publishing online, rather than via a TV station or newspaper, either as an add-on to a traditional media presence (e.g., hosting a radio show or writing a column in a paper newspaper), or as their sole journalistic output. Some institutions and organizations see blogging as a means of 'getting around the filter' of media ' and pushing their directly to the public.

Many mainstream journalists, meanwhile, write their own blogs—well over 300, according to CyberJournalist.net's J-blog list. [ ] The first known use of a blog on a news site was in August 1998, when of The published one chronicling. Some bloggers have moved over to other media. The following bloggers (and others) have appeared on radio and television: (known widely by his pseudonym, Atrios), (), (), (), (), (), and (Ezra Klein blog in, now in the ). In counterpoint, exemplifies a mass media personality who has moved in the other direction, adding to his reach in 'old media' by being an influential blogger. Similarly, it was Emergency Preparedness and Safety Tips On Air and Online blog articles that captured 's attention and earned his kudos for the associated broadcasts by talk show host and Westchester Emergency Volunteer Reserves- Director Marianne Partridge.

Blogs have also had an influence on, bringing together scattered speakers and learners; this is particularly so with blogs in. Minority language publishing (which may lack economic feasibility) can find its audience through inexpensive blogging. There are examples of bloggers who have published books based on their blogs, e.g.,,,,. Blog-based books have been given the name. A prize for the best blog-based book was initiated in 2005, the. However, success has been elusive offline, with many of these books not selling as well as their blogs. The book based on 's blog 'The Julie/Julia Project' was made into the film, apparently the first to do so.

Consumer-generated advertising is a relatively new and controversial development, and it has created a new model of marketing communication from businesses to consumers. Among the various forms of advertising on blog, the most controversial are the. These are blog entries or posts and may be in the form of feedback, reviews, opinion, videos, etc. And usually contain a link back to the desired site using a keyword or several keywords. Blogs have led to some and a breakdown of the traditional advertising model, where companies can skip over the advertising agencies (previously the only interface with the customer) and contact the customers directly via social media websites. On the other hand, new companies specialised in blog advertising have been established, to take advantage of this new development as well.

However, there are many people who look negatively on this new development. Some believe that any form of commercial activity on blogs will destroy the blogosphere’s credibility. Legal and social consequences Blogging can result in a range of legal liabilities and other unforeseen consequences. Defamation or liability Several cases have been brought before the national courts against bloggers concerning issues of.

Payouts related to blogging totaled $17.4 million by 2009; in some cases these have been covered. The courts have returned with mixed verdicts.

(ISPs), in general, are immune from liability for information that originates with third parties (U.S. And the EU Directive 2000/31/EC). Cahill, the held that stringent standards had to be met to unmask the, and also took the unusual step of dismissing the libel case itself (as unfounded under American libel law) rather than referring it back to the for reconsideration. In a bizarre twist, the Cahills were able to obtain the identity of John Doe, who turned out to be the person they suspected: the town's mayor, Councilman Cahill's political rival. The Cahills amended their original complaint, and the mayor settled the case rather than going to trial. In January 2007, two prominent political bloggers, and, were sued by a pro-government newspaper, The New Straits Times Press (Malaysia) Berhad, Kalimullah bin Masheerul Hassan, Hishamuddin bin Aun and Brenden John a/l John Pereira over an alleged defamation. The plaintiff was supported by the Malaysian government.

Following the suit, the Malaysian government proposed to 'register' all bloggers in Malaysia in order to better control parties against their interest. This is the first such legal case against bloggers in the country. In the United States, blogger Aaron Wall was sued by Traffic Power for and publication of in 2005. According to Wired magazine, Traffic Power had been 'banned from Google for allegedly rigging search engine results.' Wall and other ' consultants had exposed Traffic Power in what they claim was an effort to protect the public.

The case was dismissed for lack of personal jurisdiction, and Traffic Power failed to appeal within the allowed time. In 2009, issued a legal notice to Indian blogger Kunte for a blog post criticizing their coverage of the. The blogger unconditionally withdrew his post, which resulted in several Indian bloggers criticizing NDTV for trying to silence critics. Employment Employees who blog about elements of their place of employment can begin to affect the reputation of their employer, either in a positive way, if the employee is praising the employer and its workplaces, or in a negative way, if the blogger is making negative comments about the company or its practices.

In general, attempts by employee bloggers to protect themselves by maintaining anonymity have proved ineffective. In 2009, a controversial and landmark decision by refused to grant an order to protect the anonymity of. Horton was a police officer in the United Kingdom who blogged about his job under the name 'NightJack'. Fired because she posted photographs of herself in uniform on an airplane and because of comments posted on her blog 'Queen of Sky: Diary of a Flight Attendant' which the employer deemed inappropriate. This case highlighted the issue of personal blogging and freedom of expression versus employer rights and responsibilities, and so it received wide media attention. Simonetti took legal action against the airline for 'wrongful termination, defamation of character and lost future wages'. The suit was postponed while Delta was in bankruptcy proceedings.

In early 2006, Erik Ringmar, a senior lecturer at the, was ordered by the convenor of his department to 'take down and destroy' his blog in which he discussed the quality of education at the school. Mark Jen was terminated in 2005 after 10 days of employment as an assistant product manager at for discussing corporate secrets on his personal blog, then called 99zeros and hosted on the Google-owned service. He blogged about unreleased products and company finances a week before the company's earnings announcement. He was fired two days after he complied with his employer's request to remove the sensitive material from his blog. In India, blogger Gaurav Sabnis resigned from after his posts questioned the claims made by a management school., aka 'The Washingtonienne', blogged about her sex life while employed as a congressional assistant.

After the blog was discovered and she was fired, she wrote a novel based on her experiences and blog: The Washingtonienne: A Novel. As of 2006, Cutler is being sued by one of her former lovers in a case that could establish the extent to which bloggers are obligated to protect the privacy of their real life associates. Catherine Sanderson, a.k.a., lost her job in Paris at a British accountancy firm because of blogging. Although given in the blog in a fairly anonymous manner, some of the descriptions of the firm and some of its people were less than flattering. Sanderson later won a compensation claim case against the British firm, however.

On the other hand, wrote an upbeat article in the in 2006, entitled 'Blogs 'essential' to a good career'. She was one of the first journalists to point out that a large portion of bloggers are professionals and that a well-written blog can help attract employers. Business owners Business owners who blog about their business can also run into legal consequences., owner of the, was fined during the 2006 playoffs for criticizing NBA officials on the court and in his blog. Political dangers. See also: Blogging can sometimes have unforeseen consequences in politically sensitive areas. In some countries, or may monitor blogs and arrest blog authors of commentators.

Blogs can be much harder to control than broadcast or print media, because a person can create a blog whose authorship is hard to trace, by using anonymity technology such as. As a result, and regimes often seek to suppress blogs and/or to punish those who maintain them. In, two ethnic Chinese individuals were under the country’s for posting remarks in their blogs. Blogger was charged with insulting the Egyptian president and an through his blog. It is the first time in the history of Egypt that a blogger was prosecuted. After a brief trial session that took place in, the blogger was found guilty and sentenced to prison terms of three years for insulting and inciting sedition, and one year for insulting Mubarak. Egyptian blogger Abdel Monem Mahmoud was arrested in April 2007 for anti-government writings in his blog.

Monem is a member of the then banned. After the, the Egyptian blogger was charged with insulting the military for an article he wrote on his personal blog and sentenced to 3 years. After expressing opinions in his personal blog about the state of the Sudanese armed forces,, Special Representative for the, was given three days notice to leave Sudan. The Sudanese army had demanded his deportation. In, Nay Phone Latt, a blogger, was sentenced to 20 years in jail for posting a cartoon critical of head of state.

Personal safety. See also: and One consequence of blogging is the possibility of online or in-person attacks or threats against the blogger, sometimes without apparent reason. In some cases, bloggers have faced., author of the blog 'Creating Passionate Users', was the target of threats and insults to the point that she canceled her keynote speech at a technology conference in San Diego, fearing for her safety.

While a blogger's anonymity is often tenuous, who would attack a blogger with threats or insults can be emboldened by the anonymity of the online environment, where some users are known only by a 'username' (e.g., 'Hacker1984'). Sierra and supporters initiated an online discussion aimed at countering abusive online behavior and developed a, which set out a in the online space. Behavior The is a proposal by for bloggers to enforce civility on their blogs by being civil themselves and moderating comments on their blog. The code was proposed in 2007 due to threats made to blogger.

The idea of the code was first reported by, who quoted O'Reilly saying, 'I do think we need some code of conduct around what is acceptable behaviour, I would hope that it doesn't come through any kind of regulation it would come through self-regulation.' O'Reilly and others came up with a list of seven proposed ideas: • Take responsibility not just for your own words, but for the comments you allow on your blog.

• Label your tolerance level for abusive comments. • Consider eliminating anonymous comments. • Ignore the. • Take the conversation offline, and talk directly, or find an intermediary who can do so.

• If you know someone who is behaving badly, tell them so. • Don't say anything online that you wouldn't say in person. These ideas were predictably intensely discussed on the Web and in the media. While the internet has continued to grow, with online activity and discourse only picking up both in positive and negative ways in terms of blog interaction, the proposed Code has drawn more widespread attention to the necessity of monitoring blogging activity and social norms being as important online as offline. • Blood, Rebecca (September 7, 2000).. • Mutum, Dilip; Wang, Qing (2010).

'Consumer Generated Advertising in Blogs'. Burns; Terry Daugherty; Matthew S. Handbook of Research on Digital Media and Advertising: User Generated Content Consumption. • Gaudeul, Alexia & Peroni, Chiara (2010)... 30 (3): 2230–2248.

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• Gogoi, Pallavi (2006-10-09).. Archived from on 2008-09-26. Retrieved 2008-08-06. • Jenkins, Henry (2006). Fans, Bloggers, and Gamers. New York: New York University Press. • Keen, Andrew (2008).

The Cult of the Amateur: How Today’s Internet Is Killing Our Culture. New York: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. • Marlow, C.. Presented at the Conference, May, 2004, New Orleans, LA. • ^ Fickling, David,, NewsBlog, 15 August 2006 •.

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Retrieved 2008-06-05. 'Blogs, lies and the doocing: The next hotbed of litigation?' Computer Law & Security Report. 22 (2): 127..

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Retrieved 2013-04-26. Retrieved 2017-07-18. Retrieved 2011-01-30. Further reading • Alavi, Nasrin. We Are Iran: The Persian Blogs, Soft Skull Press, New York, 2005.. • Bruns, Axel, and Joanne Jacobs, eds. Uses of Blogs, Peter Lang, New York, 2006..

• Blood, Rebecca.. 'Rebecca's Pocket'. • Kline, David; Burstein, Dan. Blog!: How the Newest Media Revolution is Changing Politics, Business, and Culture, Squibnocket Partners, L.L.C., 2005..

Library Journal. • Ringmar, Erik. (London: Anthem Press, 2007). •,, New York: Crown Publishers, 2009. • (August 31, 2015),, External links Look up in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has quotations related to: Wikimedia Commons has media related to. • blogs, Lies and the Doocing by (2006) • by the • from the U.S.