Her iconic freehand embroidery technique, gives an insight into her practice and reveals visual narratives. Bookings essential, wellmade.com.au. Merge is a contemporary father/daughter exhibition which explores cultural diversity, inspired through their travels and Italian upbringing. Sep 13, 2017. Burster, C&K Galerie, Galerie Commeter Galerie Persiehl & Heine, Contour Art Gallery, Christopher Cutts. Gallery, Galerie Horst Dietrich. Tsekh Gallery, Galerie Vijion, Galerie Von&Von, Galerie Max Weber Six Friedrich, Westphal Berlin, Michael J. Fragmented brushwork combines in her.

The Gate, 1959–60,. Hofmann was renowned not only as an artist but also as a teacher of art and a modernist theorist both in his native Germany and later in the U.S.

During the 1930s in New York and California he introduced Modernism and modernist theories to a new generation of American artists. Through his teaching and his lectures at his art schools in and, he widened the scope of Modernism in the United States. Modernism is a philosophical movement that, along with cultural trends and changes, arose from wide-scale and far-reaching transformations in during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to. Modernism also rejected the certainty of thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief. Modernism, in general, includes the activities and creations of those who felt the traditional forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, philosophy, social organization, activities of daily life, and even the sciences, were becoming ill-fitted to their tasks and outdated in the new economic, social, and political environment of an emerging fully industrialized world.

The poet 's 1934 injunction to 'Make it new!' Was the touchstone of the movement's approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, (or pantonal) and music, painting and, all had precursors in the 19th century. A notable characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness and irony concerning literary and social traditions, which often led to experiments with form, along with the use of techniques that drew attention to the processes and materials used in creating a painting, poem, building, etc. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of,, rewriting,, revision and. Some commentators define modernism as a mode of thinking—one or more philosophically defined characteristics, like self-consciousness or self-reference, that run across all the novelties in the arts and the disciplines.

More common, especially in the West, are those who see it as a socially progressive trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve and reshape their environment with the aid of practical experimentation, scientific knowledge, or technology. From this perspective, modernism encouraged the re-examination of every aspect of existence, from commerce to philosophy, with the goal of finding that which was 'holding back', and replacing it with new ways of reaching the same end.

Others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. This facilitates consideration of specific reactions to the use of technology in the First World War, and anti-technological and nihilistic aspects of the works of diverse thinkers and artists spanning the period from (1844–1900) to (1906–1989). 's, 1830, a work of art According to one critic, modernism developed out of 's revolt against the effects of the and values: 'The ground motive of modernism, asserts, was criticism of the nineteenth-century bourgeois social order and its world view [.] the modernists, carrying the torch of romanticism.' While (1775–1851), one of the greatest landscape painters of the 19th century, was a member of the, as 'a pioneer in the study of light, colour, and atmosphere', he 'anticipated the ' and therefore modernism 'in breaking down conventional formulas of representation; [though] unlike them, he believed that his works should always express significant historical, mythological, literary, or other narrative themes.' A portrait of The dominant trends of industrial were opposed, from about 1850, by the English poets and painters that constituted the, because of their 'opposition to technical skill without inspiration.' : 815 They were influenced by the writings of the art critic (1819–1900), who had strong feelings about the role of art in helping to improve the lives of the urban working classes, in the rapidly expanding industrial cities of Britain.: 816 Art critic describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists: 'There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the pre-Raphaelites (and even before them, as proto-proto-Modernists, the German ). The Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed (1832–83), with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins.

They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, holding that its realism wasn't truthful enough.' Has also had opponents in the philosophers (1813–55) and later (1844–1900), both of whom had significant influence on.: 120 However, the Industrial Revolution continued. Influential innovations included steam-powered industrialization, and especially the development of railways, starting in Britain in the 1830s, and the subsequent advancements in physics, engineering, and architecture associated with this.

A major 19th-century engineering achievement was, the huge cast-iron and plate glass exhibition hall built for of 1851 in London. Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in, such as (1854) and (1852). These technological advances led to the building of later structures like the (1883) and the (1889). The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be. These engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. The human experience of time itself was altered, with the development of the electric from 1837, and the adoption of by British railway companies from 1845, and in the rest of the world over the next fifty years. But despite continuing technological advances, from the 1870s onward, the idea that history and civilization were inherently progressive, and that progress was always good, came under increasing attack.

Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, and could not move forward in its present form. The philosopher (1788–1860) (, 1819) called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche.

Two of the most significant thinkers of the period were biologist (1809–82), author of (1859), and political scientist (1818–83), author of (1867). Darwin's theory of by undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness. In particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as 'lower animals' proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the system, and that the workers were anything but free.

Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, charcoal on paper, The beginnings of modernism in France [ ] Historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Historian, for example, has argued that modernism began in the 1870s, when metaphorical (or ) continuity began to yield to the discrete with mathematician 's (1831–1916), and 's (1844–1906). Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with 's, the 'dots' used to paint. On the other hand, visual art critic called (1724–1804) 'the first real Modernist', though he also wrote, 'What can be safely called Modernism emerged in the middle of the last century—and rather locally, in France, with in literature and in painting, and perhaps with, too, in prose fiction. (It was a while later, and not so locally, that Modernism appeared in and ).'

The poet Baudelaire's ( The Flowers of Evil), and Flaubert's novel were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France. The first was, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors ( ).

Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time, the government-sponsored, the Impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues during the 1870s and 1880s, timing them to coincide with the official Salon.

A significant event of 1863 was the, created by to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by inferior artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention, and opened commercial doors to the movement.

The second French school was, which literary historians see beginning with Charles Baudelaire (1821–67), and including the later poets, (1854–91) Une Saison en Enfer ( A Season in Hell, 1873), (1844–96), (1842–98), and (1871–1945). The symbolists 'stressed the priority of suggestion and evocation over direct description and explicit analogy,' and were especially interested in 'the musical properties of language.' , which gave birth to so many of the arts of modernism, including the immediate precursors of film, may be said to have begun in France in 1881 with the opening of the in, the beginning of the ironic monologue, and the founding of the Society of Incoherent Arts. Portrait of Eduard Kosmack by Expressionism is notoriously difficult to define, in part because it 'overlapped with other major 'isms' of the modernist period: with,,, and.' Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's in New York City There was a concentrated Expressionist movement in early 20th century German theatre, of which and were the most famous playwrights.

Other notable Expressionist dramatists included,,, and. They looked back to Swedish playwright and German actor and dramatist as precursors of their experiments. 's was the first fully Expressionist work for the theatre, which opened on 4 July 1909 in. The extreme simplification of characters to mythic, choral effects, declamatory dialogue and heightened intensity would become characteristic of later Expressionist plays. The first full-length Expressionist play was by Walter Hasenclever, which was published in 1914 and first performed in 1916. Is yet another modernist movement. In 1909, the Parisian newspaper published 's first manifesto.

Soon afterwards a group of painters (,,,, and ) co-signed the. Modeled on and ' famous ' (1848), such manifestoes put forward ideas that were meant to provoke and to gather followers. However, arguments in favor of geometric or purely abstract painting were, at this time, largely confined to 'little magazines' which had only tiny circulations. Modernist primitivism and pessimism were controversial, and the mainstream in the first decade of the 20th century was still inclined towards a faith in progress and liberal optimism. 1913,, oil on canvas, 146 x 114 cm (57.5 in × 44.9 in), exhibited at Moderni Umeni,, Prague, 1914, acquired in 1916 by at the Galerie, confiscated by the Nazis circa 1936–37, displayed at the show in Munich, and missing ever since. Artists, taking as their examples the, as well as (1839–1906) and (1863–1944), began with the assumption that color and, not the depiction of the natural world, formed the essential characteristics of art.

Had been, from the up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of and an attempt to reproduce an illusion of visible reality. Sophie Barker Rapidshare Library. The arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art which would encompass the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy.

The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse, and reflected the social and intellectual preoccupations in all areas of Western culture at that time.,, and all believed in redefining art as the arrangement of pure color. The use of, which had rendered much of the representational function of visual art obsolete, strongly affected this aspect of modernism.

And designers, such as and, believed that new technology rendered old styles of building obsolete. Le Corbusier thought that buildings should function as 'machines for living in', analogous to cars, which he saw as machines for traveling in. Just as cars had replaced the horse, so modernist design should reject the old styles and structures inherited from or from the. Following this machine aesthetic, modernist designers typically rejected decorative motifs in design, preferring to emphasize the materials used and pure geometrical forms. The is the archetypal modernist building, and the Wainwright Building, a 10-story office building built 1890-91, in, United States, is among the in the world. 's in New York (1956–1958) is often regarded as the pinnacle of this modernist high-rise architecture. Many aspects of modernist design still persist within the mainstream of, though previous dogmatism has given way to a more playful use of decoration, historical quotation, and spatial drama.

Pedestal Table in the Studio 1922, early example of In 1913—which was the year of philosopher 's Ideas, physicist 's quantized atom, 's founding of, the in New York, and in the 'first futurist opera', 's —another Russian composer,, composed, a ballet that depicts, and has a musical score full of dissonance and primitive rhythm. This caused uproar on its first performance in Paris. At this time though modernism was still 'progressive', increasingly it saw traditional forms and traditional social arrangements as hindering progress, and was recasting the artist as a revolutionary, engaged in overthrowing rather than enlightening society. Also in 1913 a less violent event occurred in France with the publication of the first volume of 's important novel sequence (1913–1927) ( In Search of Lost Time). This often presented as an early example of a writer using the, but Robert Humphrey comments that Proust 'is concerned only with the reminiscent aspect of consciousness' and that he 'was deliberately recapturing the past for the purpose of communicating; hence he did not write a stream-of-consciousness novel.' Stream of consciousness was an important modernist literary innovation, and it has been suggested that (1862–1931) was the first to make full use of it in his short story 'Leutnant Gustl' ('None but the Brave') (1900).

Was the first English writer to use it, in the early volumes of her (1915–67). The other modernist novelists that are associated with the use of this narrative technique include in (1922) and in (1923). However, with the coming of the of 1914-18 and the of 1917, the world was drastically changed and doubt cast on the beliefs and institutions of the past. The failure of the previous status quo seemed self-evident to a generation that had seen millions die fighting over scraps of earth: prior to 1914 it had been argued that no one would fight such a war, since the cost was too high. The birth of a machine age which had made major changes in the conditions of daily life in the 19th century now had radically changed the nature of warfare. The traumatic nature of recent experience altered basic assumptions, and realistic depiction of life in the arts seemed inadequate when faced with the fantastically surreal nature of. The view that mankind was making steady moral progress now seemed ridiculous in the face of the senseless slaughter, described in works such as 's novel (1929).

Therefore, modernism's view of reality, which had been a minority taste before the war, became more generally accepted in the 1920s. In literature and visual art some Modernists sought to defy expectations mainly in order to make their art more vivid, or to force the audience to take the trouble to question their own preconceptions. This aspect of modernism has often seemed a reaction to, which developed in Europe and North America in the late 19th century. Whereas most manufacturers try to make products that will be marketable by appealing to preferences and prejudices, rejected such consumerist attitudes in order to undermine conventional thinking. The art critic expounded this theory of modernism in his essay. Greenberg labeled the products of consumer culture ', because their design aimed simply to have maximum appeal, with any difficult features removed. For Greenberg, modernism thus formed a reaction against the development of such examples of modern consumer culture as commercial,, and advertising.

Greenberg associated this with the revolutionary rejection of capitalism. Some Modernists saw themselves as part of a revolutionary culture that included political revolution. In after the 1917 there was indeed initially a burgeoning of avant-garde cultural activity, which included.

However others rejected conventional politics as well as artistic conventions, believing that a revolution of had greater importance than a change in political structures. But many modernists saw themselves as apolitical. Others, such as, rejected mass from a conservative position.

Some even argue that modernism in literature and art functioned to sustain an culture which excluded the majority of the population., which originated in the early 1920s, came to be regarded by the public as the most extreme form of modernism, or 'the avant-garde of Modernism'. The word 'surrealist' was coined by and first appeared in the preface to his play, which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917. Major surrealists include,,,,,,, and. By 1930, Modernism had won a place in the establishment, including the political and artistic establishment, although by this time Modernism itself had changed. Modernism continues: 1930–1945 [ ] Modernism continued to evolve during the 1930s. Between 1930 and 1932 composer worked on, one of the first operas to make use of the, Pablo Picasso painted in 1937, his cubist condemnation of, while in 1939 pushed the boundaries of the modern novel further with.

Also by 1930 Modernism began to influence mainstream culture, so that, for example, magazine began publishing work, influenced by Modernism, by young writers and humorists like,,,, and, amongst others. Perelman is highly regarded for his humorous short stories that he published in magazines in the 1930s and 1940s, most often in The New Yorker, which are considered to be the first examples of in America. Modern ideas in art also began to appear more frequently in commercials and logos, an early example of which, from 1919, is the famous logo designed.

One of the most visible changes of this period was the adoption of new technologies into daily life of ordinary people in Western Europe and North America. Electricity, the telephone, the radio, the automobile—and the need to work with them, repair them and live with them—created social change. The kind of disruptive moment that only a few knew in the 1880s became a common occurrence. For example, the speed of communication reserved for the stock brokers of 1890 became part of family life, at least in middle class North America. Associated with urbanization and changing social mores also came smaller families and changed relationships between parents and their children. Logo designed by Another strong influence at this time was. After the generally primitivistic/irrationalist aspect of pre-World War I Modernism, which for many Modernists precluded any attachment to merely political solutions, and the of the 1920s, as represented most famously by and —which rejected popular solutions to modern problems—the rise of, the, and the march to war helped to radicalise a generation.,,, and the philosophers and are perhaps the most famous exemplars of this Modernist form of Marxism.

There were, however, also Modernists explicitly of 'the right', including,, T. Eliot,, the Dutch author and others. Significant Modernist literary works continued to be created in the 1920s and 1930s, including further novels by,,, and. The American Modernist dramatist 's career began in 1914, but his major works appeared in the 1920s, 1930s and early 1940s. Two other significant Modernist dramatists writing in the 1920s and 1930s were and. 's was privately published in 1928, while another important landmark for the history of the modern novel came with the publication of 's in 1929.

In the 1930s, in addition to further major works by Faulkner, published his first major work, the novel (1938). Then in 1939 James Joyce's appeared.

This is written in a largely, consisting of a mixture of standard English and and words, which attempts to recreate the experience of sleep and dreams. Eliot,, and were writing from the 1920s until the 1950s. While Modernist poetry in English is often viewed as an American phenomenon, with leading exponents including Ezra Pound, T.

Eliot,,,, and, there were important British Modernist poets, including,,, and. European Modernist poets include,,, and. James Joyce statue on, Dublin, by Marjorie FitzGibbon The Modernist movement continued during this period in. In 1930 composer 's (1906–75) opera was premiered, in which he uses a of different styles, including, and. Amongst his influences was 's (1985–1935) opera (1925), which 'had made a tremendous impression on Shostakovich when it was staged in Leningrad.' However, from 1932 began to oust Modernism in the Soviet Union, and in 1936 Shostakovich was attacked and forced to withdraw his 4th Symphony. Alban Berg wrote another significant, though incomplete, Modernist opera,, which premiered in 1937.

Berg's was first performed in 1935. Like Shostakovich, other composers faced difficulties in this period.

In Germany (1874–1951) was forced to flee to the U.S. When Hitler came to power in 1933, because of his Modernist style as well as his Jewish ancestry. His major works from this period are a, Op.

36 (1934/36), and, Op. Schoenberg also wrote tonal music in this period with the Suite for Strings in G major (1935) and the in E ♭ minor, Op. 38 (begun in 1906, completed in 1939). During this time Hungarian Modernist (1881–1945) produced a number of major works, including (1936) and the (1939), (1934), and (his last, 1939). But he too left for the US in 1940, because of the rise of in Hungary. (1882–1971) continued writing in his during the 1930s and 1940s, writing works like the (1930), (1940) and (1945). He also emigrated to the US because of World War II.

(1908–1992), however, served in the French army during the war and was imprisoned at by the Germans, where he composed his famous ('Quartet for the End of Time'). The quartet was first performed in January 1941 to an audience of prisoners and prison guards. In painting, during the 1920s and the 1930s and the, modernism is defined by, late,,,, German, and Modernist and masterful color painters like and as well as the abstractions of artists like and which characterized the European art scene. In Germany,,, and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of World War II, while in America, modernism is seen in the form of and the and movements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world. Artists like,,,,,, and others became prominent. Modernism is defined in by painters from Uruguay and from Mexico, while the with,,, and, and paintings by, began a renaissance of the arts for the region, characterized by a freer use of color and an emphasis on political messages. Diego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world for his 1933 mural,, in the lobby of the RCA Building. Canzoniere Italiano Pasolini Pdf.

When his patron discovered that the mural included a portrait of and other communist imagery, he fired Rivera, and the unfinished work was eventually destroyed by Rockefeller's staff. Frida Kahlo's (Rivera's wife's) works are often characterized by their stark portrayals of pain. Kahlo was deeply influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, which is apparent in her paintings' bright colors and dramatic symbolism. Christian and Jewish themes are often depicted in her work as well; she combined elements of the classic religious Mexican tradition, which were often bloody and violent.

Frida Kahlo's Symbolist works relate strongly to Surrealism and to the movement in literature. Political activism was an important piece of David Siqueiros' life, and frequently inspired him to set aside his artistic career. His art was deeply rooted in the.

The period from the 1920s to the 1950s is known as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was active in the attempt to create an art that was at once Mexican and universal. The young attended the workshop and helped build for the parade.

During the 1930s radical leftist politics characterized many of the artists connected to Surrealism, including. On 26 April 1937, during the, the town of was by Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe. The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of to overthrow the Basque government and the Spanish Republican government.

Pablo Picasso painted his mural-sized to commemorate the horrors of the bombing. 's, 1937, protest against Fascism During the of the 1930s and through the years of World War II, American art was characterized by and, in the work of,,,, and several others. (1942) is a painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people sitting in a downtown diner late at night. It is not only Hopper's most famous painting, but one of the most recognizable in American art. The scene was inspired by a diner in.

Hopper began painting it immediately after the. After this event there was a large feeling of gloominess over the country, a feeling that is portrayed in the painting. The urban street is empty outside the diner, and inside none of the three patrons is apparently looking or talking to the others but instead is lost in their own thoughts. This portrayal of modern urban life as empty or lonely is a common theme throughout Hopper's work.

Is a painting by from 1930. Portraying a -holding farmer and a younger woman in front of a house of style, it is one of the most familiar images in 20th-century. Art critics had favorable opinions about the painting; like and, they assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of rural small-town life. It was thus seen as part of the trend towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines of 's 1919, 's 1920, and 's The Tattooed Countess in literature. However, with the onset of the Great Depression, the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit. The situation for artists in Europe during the 1930s deteriorated rapidly as the Nazis' power in Germany and across Eastern Europe increased. Was a term adopted by the regime in Germany for virtually all.

Such art was banned on the grounds that it was un-German or in nature, and those identified as degenerate artists were subjected to sanctions. These included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art entirely.

Was also the title of an exhibition, mounted by the Nazis in in 1937. The climate became so hostile for artists and art associated with modernism and that many left for the Americas. German artist and scores of others fled Europe for New York. In New York City a new generation of young and exciting Modernist painters led by,, and others were just beginning to come of age. Arshile Gorky's portrait of someone who might be Willem de Kooning is an example of the evolution of from the context of figure painting, cubism and surrealism.

Along with his friends de Kooning and, Gorky created biomorphically shaped and abstracted figurative compositions that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings. Gorky's work seems to be a careful analysis of memory, emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling and nature. After World War II (mainly the visual and performing arts) [ ].

1952, Pollock and abstract influences [ ] During the late 1940s 's radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all that followed him. To some extent Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. Like 's innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture in the early 20th century via and constructed, Pollock redefined the way art is made. His move away from easel painting and conventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of his era and to all who came after.

Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's process—placing unstretched raw on the floor where it could be attacked from all four sides using artistic and industrial materials; dripping and throwing linear skeins of paint; drawing, staining, and brushing; using imagery and nonimagery—essentially blasted artmaking beyond any prior boundary. Abstract expressionism generally expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities available to artists for the creation of new works of art.

Typical of Newman's later work, with the use of pure and vibrant color. The other followed Pollock's breakthrough with new breakthroughs of their own.

In a sense the innovations of Jackson Pollock,,,,,,,,,, and others opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of all the art that followed them. Rereadings into abstract art by art historians such as, and critically show, however, that pioneering women artists who produced major innovations in modern art had been ignored by official accounts of its history. International figures from British art [ ] (1898–1986) emerged after as Britain's leading. He was best known for his semi- monumental bronze sculptures which are located around the world as public works of art. His forms are usually abstractions of the human figure, typically depicting mother-and-child or reclining figures, usually suggestive of the female body, apart from a phase in the 1950s when he sculpted family groups. His forms are generally pierced or contain hollow spaces.

Reclining Figure (1957). In front of the, Switzerland. In the 1950s, Moore began to receive increasingly significant commissions, including a reclining figure for the building in Paris in 1958. With many more public works of art, the scale of Moore's sculptures grew significantly. The last three decades of Moore's life continued in a similar vein, with several major retrospectives taking place around the world, notably a prominent exhibition in the summer of 1972 in the grounds of the overlooking. By the end of the 1970s, there were some 40 exhibitions a year featuring his work.

On the campus of the in December 1967, 25 years to the minute after the team of physicists led by achieved the first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, Moore's was unveiled. Also in Chicago, Moore commemorated science with a large bronze sundial, locally named (1980), which was commissioned to recognise the program. The 'London School' of figurative painters, including (1909–1992), (1922–2011), (born 1931), (born 1926), and (1928–1995), have received widespread international recognition. Francis Bacon was an Irish-born British figurative painter known for his bold, graphic and emotionally raw imagery.

His painterly but abstracted figures typically appear isolated in glass or steel geometrical cages set against flat, nondescript backgrounds. Bacon began painting during his early 20s but worked only sporadically until his mid-30s. His breakthrough came with the 1944 which sealed his reputation as a uniquely bleak chronicler of the human condition.

His output can be crudely described as consisting of sequences or variations on a single motif; beginning with the 1940s male heads isolated in rooms, the early 1950s screaming popes, and mid to late 1950s animals and lone figures suspended in geometric structures. These were followed by his early 1960s modern variations of the crucifixion in the triptych format. From the mid-1960s to early 1970s, Bacon mainly produced strikingly compassionate portraits of friends. Following the suicide of his lover George Dyer in 1971, his art became more personal, inward-looking, and preoccupied with themes and motifs of death. During his lifetime, Bacon was equally reviled and acclaimed. Was a German-born British painter, known chiefly for his thickly portrait and figure paintings, who was widely considered the pre-eminent British artist of his time.

His works are noted for their psychological penetration, and for their often discomforting examination of the relationship between artist and model. According to William Grimes of the, 'Lucien Freud and his contemporaries transformed figure painting in the 20th century. In paintings like Girl with a White Dog (1951-52), Freud put the pictorial language of traditional European painting in the service of an anti-romantic, confrontational style of portraiture that stripped bare the sitter's social facade. Ordinary people—many of them his friends—stared wide-eyed from the canvas, vulnerable to the artist's ruthless inspection.' In the 1960s after abstract expressionism [ ]. Main articles:,,,,, and In during the 1950s and 1960s several new directions like and other forms of began to appear in artist studios and in radical circles as a reaction against the subjectivism of abstract expressionism. Became the voice of when he curated an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art museums throughout the United States in 1964.

Painting, hard-edge painting and emerged as radical new directions. By the late 1960s however,, and also emerged as revolutionary concepts and movements that encompassed both painting and sculpture, via lyrical abstraction and the postminimalist movement, and in early.

Process art as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopedia of style, content, material, placement, sense of time, and plastic and real space.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, and were some of the younger artists who emerged during the era of that spawned the heyday of the art of the late 1960s. Main articles: and In 1962 the Gallery mounted The New Realists, the first major group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City. Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery at 15 E. The show sent shockwaves through the and reverberated worldwide. Earlier in England in 1958 the term 'Pop Art' was used by to describe paintings that celebrated the of the post World War II era. This movement rejected abstract expressionism and its focus on the and psychological interior in favor of art that depicted and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age.

The early works of and the works of and (who created the groundbreaking I was a Rich Man's Plaything, 1947) are considered seminal examples in the movement. Meanwhile, in the downtown scene in New York's 10th Street galleries, artists were formulating an American version of pop art. Had his storefront, and the on 57th Street began to show the works of and. Later exhibited the works of other American artists, including those of and for most of their careers.

There is a connection between the radical works of and, the rebellious with a sense of humor, and pop artists like Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, and Roy Lichtenstein, whose paintings reproduce the look of, a technique used in commercial reproduction. Minimalism [ ]. Main articles:,,,, and describes movements in various forms of art and design, especially and, wherein artists intend to expose the essence or identity of a subject through eliminating all nonessential forms, features, or concepts. Minimalism is any design or style wherein the simplest and fewest elements are used to create the maximum effect. As a specific movement in the arts it is identified with developments in post–World War II Western art, most strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s and early 1970s. Prominent artists associated with this movement include,,,,,,, and. It derives from the reductive aspects of modernism and is often interpreted as a reaction against and a bridge to art practices.

By the early 1960s minimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots in the of, the and ) that rejected the idea of relational and subjective painting, the complexity of surfaces, and the emotional and polemics present in the arena of. Minimalism argued that extreme simplicity could capture all of the sublime representation needed in art. Minimalism is variously construed either as a precursor to, or as a postmodern movement itself. In the latter perspective, early minimalism yielded advanced Modernist works, but the movement partially abandoned this direction when some artists like changed direction in favor of the. Hal Foster, in his essay The Crux of Minimalism, examines the extent to which Donald Judd and Robert Morris both acknowledge and exceed Greenbergian Modernism in their published definitions of minimalism. He argues that minimalism is not a 'dead end' of Modernism, but a 'paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated today.' The terms have expanded to encompass a movement in music that features such repetition and iteration as those of the compositions of,,,, and.

Minimalist compositions are sometimes known as. The term 'minimalist' often colloquially refers to anything that is spare or stripped to its essentials. It has also been used to describe the and of, the films of, the stories of, and the automobile designs of. Postminimalism [ ]. Smithson's from atop Rozel Point, Utah, US, in mid-April 2005. Created in 1970, it still exists although it has often been submerged by the fluctuating lake level. It consists of some 6500 of, earth and salt.

In the late 1960s coined the term ' to describe minimalist-derived art which had content and contextual overtones that minimalism rejected. The term was applied by Pincus-Whitten to the work of,, and new work by former minimalists,,,, and others. Other minimalists including,,,, and others continued to produce late Modernist paintings and sculpture for the remainders of their careers. Since then, many artists have embraced minimal or postminimal styles, and the label 'Postmodern' has been attached to them.

Collage, assemblage, installations [ ]. Untitled Combine, 1963 Related to was the emergence of combining manufactured items with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture. The work of exemplifies this trend. His 'combines' of the 1950s were forerunners of and, and used assemblages of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photographs. Rauschenberg,,,,,,, and were among important pioneers of both abstraction and pop art. Creating new conventions of art-making, they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion in their works of unlikely materials. Another pioneer of collage was, whose more intimately scaled works were seen as radical because of both his personal iconography and his use of.

Neo-Dada [ ]. Main article: In the early 20th century submitted for exhibition a as a sculpture. He professed his intent that people look at the urinal as if it were a work of art because he said it was a work of art. He referred to his work as '. Was a urinal signed with the pseudonym 'R. Mutt', the exhibition of which shocked the art world in 1917. This and Duchamp's other works are generally labelled as Dada.

Duchamp can be seen as a precursor to conceptual art, other famous examples being 's, which is four minutes and thirty three seconds of silence, and Rauschenberg's. Many conceptual works take the position that art is the result of the viewer viewing an object or act as art, not of the intrinsic qualities of the work itself. In choosing 'an ordinary article of life' and creating 'a new thought for that object' Duchamp invited onlookers to view Fountain as a sculpture. Marcel Duchamp famously gave up 'art' in favor of. Avant-garde composer created a piece, Reunion (1968), written jointly with Lowell Cross, that features a chess game in which each move triggers a lighting effect or projection.

Duchamp and Cage played the game at the work's premier. And identify Rauschenberg and as part of the transitional phase, influenced by Duchamp, between Modernism and Postmodernism. Both used images of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work, while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high Modernism. Performance and happenings [ ].

In, and (pictured),,, and in were pioneers of performance based works of art, that often entailed nudity. During the late 1950s and 1960s artists with a wide range of interests began to push the boundaries of contemporary art.

In France,,, and in New York City, and, and in Germany were pioneers of performance-based works of art. Groups like with and collaborated with sculptors and painters creating environments, radically changing the relationship between audience and performer, especially in their piece Paradise Now. The, located at the, New York; and the Judson dancers, notably,,, Sally Gross, Simonne Forti,,, and others; collaborated with artists,,,, and engineers like. Was a center for musical performances by electronic composers,, and other notable performance artists including.

These performances were intended as works of a new art form combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often with audience participation. They were characterized by the reductive philosophies of minimalism and the spontaneous improvisation and expressivity of abstract expressionism. Images of Schneeman's performances of pieces meant to shock are occasionally used to illustrate these kinds of art, and she is often seen photographed while performing her piece Interior Scroll.

However, the images of her performing this piece are illustrating precisely what performance art is not. In performance art, the performance itself is the medium.

Other media cannot illustrate performance art. Performance art is performed, not captured. By its nature performance is momentary and evanescent, which is part of the point of the medium as art. Representations of performance art in other media, whether by image, video, narrative or otherwise, select certain points of view in space or time or otherwise involve the inherent limitations of each medium, and which therefore cannot truly illustrate the medium of performance as art. During the same period, various avant-garde artists created, mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in various specified locations, often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physicality, costuming, spontaneous, and various random or seemingly disconnected acts.

Notable creators of happenings included —who first used the term in 1958,,,, and. Intermedia, multi-media [ ]. Main article: Another trend in art which has been associated with the term postmodern is the use of a number of different media together. Is a term coined by and meant to convey new art forms along the lines of,,,, and. Higgins was the publisher of the, a concrete poet married to artist and an admirer of. Includes 'Intermedia, the fusion of forms, the confusion of realms,' in his list of the characteristics of.

One of the most common forms of 'multi-media art' is the use of video-tape and CRT monitors, termed. While the theory of combining multiple arts into one art is quite old, and has been revived periodically, the postmodern manifestation is often in combination with performance art, where the dramatic subtext is removed, and what is left is the specific statements of the artist in question or the conceptual statement of their action.

Main article: Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by (1931–78), a Lithuanian-born American artist. Fluxus traces its beginnings to 's 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at the in New York City. Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music. Cage's students included Fluxus founding members,, and. Fluxus encouraged a do-it-yourself aesthetic and valued simplicity over complexity.

Like before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with their colleagues. Criticises attempts to claim Fluxus for Postmodernism as 'either the master-code of postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement – as it were, postmodernism's sublime.' Instead he sees Fluxus as a major phenomena within the avant-garde tradition. It did not represent a major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it did express a rebellion against 'the administered culture of the 1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated modernism served as ideological prop to the.'

Late period [ ]. Vine, 1992–93, oil on linen, 240 by 260 cm (8 by 8 1⁄ 2 ft), Museum of Modern Art, New York The continuation of,,,,,,,,, and other late 20th-century Modernist movements in both painting and sculpture continued through the first decade of the 21st century and constitute radical new directions in those mediums. At the turn of the 21st century, well-established artists such as,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, and younger artists including,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, and others continued to produce vital and influential paintings and sculpture. Differences between modernism and postmodernism [ ] By the early 1980s the movement in art and architecture began to establish its position through various and formats. Postmodernism in music and literature began to take hold earlier. In music, postmodernism is described in one reference work, as a 'term introduced in the 1970s', while in British literature, The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature sees modernism 'ceding its predominance to postmodernism' as early as 1939.

However, dates are highly debatable, especially as according to Andreas Huyssen: 'one critic's postmodernism is another critic's modernism.' This includes those who are critical of the division between the two and see them as two aspects of the same movement, and believe that late Modernism continues. Modernism is an encompassing label for a wide variety of cultural movements. Is essentially a centralized movement that named itself, based on sociopolitical theory, although the term is now used in a wider sense to refer to activities from the 20th century onwards which exhibit awareness of and reinterpret the modern. Postmodern theory asserts that the attempt to canonise Modernism 'after the fact' is doomed to undisambiguable contradictions. In a narrower sense, what was Modernist was not necessarily also postmodern. Those elements of Modernism which accentuated the benefits of rationality and socio-technological progress were only Modernist.

Criticism and hostility to modernism [ ]. The fate of the animals, 1913, oil on canvas. The work was displayed at the exhibition of ('degenerate art') in,, 1937.

Modernism's stress on, experimentation,, and disregards conventional expectations. In many art forms this often meant startling and alienating audiences with bizarre and unpredictable effects, as in the strange and disturbing combinations of motifs in or the use of extreme and in Modernist music.

In literature this often involved the rejection of intelligible plots or characterization in novels, or the creation of poetry that defied clear interpretation. After the rise of, the government rejected modernism on the grounds of alleged, although it had previously endorsed and. The government of Germany deemed modernism and nonsensical, as well as 'Jewish' (see ) and 'Negro'. The Nazis exhibited Modernist paintings alongside works by the in an exhibition entitled '. Accusations of 'formalism' could lead to the end of a career, or worse. For this reason many Modernists of the postwar generation felt that they were the most important bulwark against totalitarianism, the ', whose repression by a government or other group with supposed authority represented a warning that individual liberties were being threatened. Sass compared madness, specifically, and modernism in a less fascist manner by noting their shared disjunctive narratives, surreal images, and incoherence.

In fact, modernism flourished mainly in consumer/capitalist societies, despite the fact that its proponents often rejected consumerism itself. However, began to merge with consumer culture after World War II, especially during the 1960s. In Britain, a youth emerged calling itself 'Modernist' (usually shortened to ), following such representative music groups as and. The likes of, and combined popular musical traditions with Modernist verse, adopting literary devices derived from,,,,,, and others. Developed along similar lines, creating various Modernist musical effects on several albums, while musicians such as, and proved even more experimental. Modernist devices also started to appear in popular cinema, and later on in music videos.

Modernist design also began to enter the mainstream of popular culture, as simplified and stylized forms became popular, often associated with dreams of a high-tech future. This merging of consumer and high versions of Modernist culture led to a radical transformation of the meaning of 'Modernism'. First, it implied that a movement based on the rejection of tradition had become a tradition of its own.

Second, it demonstrated that the distinction between elite Modernist and mass consumerist culture had lost its precision. Some writers [ ] declared that modernism had become so institutionalized that it was now 'post avant-garde', indicating that it had lost its power as a revolutionary movement. Many have interpreted this transformation as the beginning of the phase that became known as.

For others, such as art critic, postmodernism represents an extension of modernism. 'Anti-modern' or 'counter-modern' movements seek to emphasize, connection and as remedies or antidotes to modernism. Such movements see modernism as, and therefore subject to an inability to see systemic and effects. Many Modernists came to this viewpoint, for example in his late turn towards mysticism. Writers such as Paul H. Ray and Sherry Ruth Anderson, in (2000), Fredrick Turner in A Culture of Hope and in Plan B, have articulated a critique of the basic idea of modernism itself – that individual creative expression should conform to the realities of technology. Instead, they argue, individual creativity should make everyday life more emotionally acceptable.

Some traditionalist artists like reject modernism generally as the product of 'an epoch of false money allied with false culture'. In some fields, the effects of modernism have remained stronger and more persistent than in others. Visual art has made the most complete break with its past. Most major capital cities have museums devoted to modern art as distinct from post- art (c. Examples include the in New York, the in London, and the in Paris.

These galleries make no distinction between modernist and Postmodernist phases, seeing both as developments within Modern Art. See also [ ].

• Armstrong, Carol and de Zegher, Catherine (eds.), Women Artists as the Millennium, Cambridge, MA: October Books,, 2006.. • Aspray, William &, eds., History and Philosophy of Modern Mathematics, Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science vol XI, Minneapolis:, 1988 • Baker, Houston A., Jr., Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance, Chicago:, 1987 • Berman, Marshall, All That Is Solid Melts Into Air: The Experience of Modernity.

London:, 1988.. • Bradbury, Malcolm, & James McFarlane (eds.), Modernism: A Guide to European Literature 1890–1930 ( 'Penguin Literary Criticism' series, 1978, ).

• Brush, Stephen G., The History of Modern Science: A Guide to the Second Scientific Revolution, 1800–1950, Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1988 • Centre Georges Pompidou, Face a l'Histoire, 1933–1996. Flammarion, 1996..

• Crouch, Christopher, Modernism in art design and architecture, New York:, 2000 • Eysteinsson, Astradur, The Concept of Modernism, Ithaca, NY:, 1992 •. Beyond Symbolism and Surrealism: Alexei Remizov's Synthetic Art, Northwestern University Press, 2010.

(Trade Cloth) • Frascina, Francis, and Charles Harrison (eds.). Modern Art and Modernism: A Critical Anthology. Published in association with. London:, Ltd.

Reprinted, London: Paul Chapman Publishing, Ltd., 1982. • Gates, Henry Louis. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004.

• Hughes, Robert, The Shock of the New: Art and the Century of Change (, 1991, ). • Kenner, Hugh, The Pound Era (1971), Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973 • Kern, Stephen, The Culture of Time and Space, Cambridge, MA:, 1983 • Kolocotroni, Vassiliki et al., ed., Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents (Edinburgh:, 1998). • Levenson, Michael, (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Modernism (, 'Cambridge Companions to Literature' series, 1999, ). • Lewis, Pericles.

The Cambridge Introduction to Modernism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). • Nicholls, Peter, Modernisms: A Literary Guide (Hampshire and London:, 1995).

•, Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius (New Haven, CT:, 2005, ). • The Sources of Modern Architecture and Design (, ' series, 1985, ). • Pollock, Griselda, Generations and Geographies in the Visual Arts. (Routledge, London, 1996. • Pollock, Griselda, and Florence, Penny, Looking Back to the Future: Essays by Griselda Pollock from the 1990s. (New York: G&B New Arts Press, 2001.

) • Potter, Rachael (January 2009).. The Johns Hopkins University Press. • Sass, Louis A. Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought. New York: Basic Books. Cited in Bauer, Amy (2004).

'Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music', in The Pleasure of Modernist Music.. Vintage, 1980. • Schwartz, Sanford, The Matrix of Modernism: Pound, Eliot, and Early Twentieth Century Thought, Princeton, NJ:, 1985 • Van Loo, Sofie (ed.), Gorge(l)., 2006.. •, University of Massachusetts Press,. • Weston, Richard, Modernism (, 2001, ).

• de Zegher, Catherine, Inside the Visible. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996). External links [ ] Look up in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to.

•, • Denzer, Anthony S., PhD, •, photographer, • An online radio show that presents a humorous version of Modernism • •, official publication of the • •, in which he defines Modernism as 'the synthesis of all heresies'.